PSEB Notes

This PSEB 12th Class Physical Education Notes Chapter 3 Careers in Physical Education and Sports Awards will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 12th Class Physical Education Notes Chapter 3 Careers in Physical Education and Sports Awards

→ Throughout history, sports have played a variety of important roles in society as recreation, preparation for war, and hunting.

→ The ancient Greeks were lovers of sports and taught their children to take part in these activities for health benefits.

→ The main activities at that time were wrestling, running, jumping, discus throw, javelin, and gymnastics, etc.

→ Later, during the modern era, the brief history of physical education revealed a focus on gymnastics, hygiene training, and the development of the human body.

→ In 1882, the Education Commission of India recommended introducing physical education in the school curriculum but did not succeed in their efforts.

→ In the year 1927, with the efforts of A.G. Noehren, H.C. Buck, and Dorabji Tata, IOA was established in order to promote physical education teachers in India.

→ LNCPE was established in Gwalior in the year 1957.

→ In the year 1984, the First National sports policy was introduced which laid the stress to include physical education as a compulsory subject in the school curriculum.

→ This laid foundation for the career options in the field of physical education to teach students at the school level.

→ With the implementation of the compulsory subjects in the school curriculum and with the development of competitive sports in India, career options were groomed in the field.

→ In order to teach at the school level various degree courses such as B.PE., B.P.Ed., D.P.Ed. were introduced for the school teacher.

→ In addition to this, to teach at the college level a teacher must possess, Masters’ Degree in Physical Education, UGC (NET), M.Phil, Ph.d.

→ With the advancement of physical education and sports in India, leading institutes provided various courses for the career options such as YMCA College Madras, LNIPE Gwalior, Shri Hanumans Parasarak Mandal (Amravati), Chennai University, Panjab University (Chandigarh), GNDU, Amritsar, etc.

→ The career options in the field of physical education and Sports also developed such as options to work as a school and college teacher, coaching, fitness trainer, sports journalism, sports physiotherapist, commentator, and official, etc.

→ In order to promote sportspersons, various sports awards were also introduced by the government of India such as the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award, the highest sports award for the sports person i.e. Arjuna Award, in order to recognize the contribution of coaches, Dronacharya Award was also introduced, To encourage and improve sports at college or university level MAKA trophy was also introduced by the government of India in the year 1956.

→ Hence, It can be viewed that since the inception of physical education and sports, there has been continuous development in the field to engage youth and children in these activities.

This PSEB 12th Class Physical Education Notes Chapter 2 Sports Training will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 12th Class Physical Education Notes Chapter 2 Sports Training

→ In today’s competitive world of sports, everyone aims at winning at all costs.

→ Hence, the concept of sports training has a vital role to play in the field of sports.

→ The concept of sports training deals with the systematic preparation of athletes to obtain peak performance at the time of competition.

→ The aim of sports training is to produce optimum performance during competition.

→ Hence, the training schedule is classified in such a way that a player gets complete recovery from the training load and feels fresh and energetic to take a fresh load to continue performance.

→ According to Martin, “Sports training is a planned and controlled process of achieving goals in which the changes of motor performance and behaviour are made through measures of content, method, and organisation”.

→ Hence, sports training implies a systematic and controlled way of imparting training to an athlete to produce an optimum performance at the time of competition.

→ In order to have fruitful results from the sports training programme various principles such as individual differences, the principle of use of disuse, load (overload), progression, safety, continuity, and rest or recovery must be followed, otherwise, the purpose of training will not be effective and useful for the trainees.

→ It is also important to perform the warm-up exercises to prepare an athlete physically, physiologically, or psychologically for the sports training programme or prior to competition.

→ It helps an athlete to perform with the least chances of injuries.

→ Similarly, limbering or cooling down plays a significant role to attain normal conditions after performing strenuous exercises.

→ Hence, sports training is the way and means of systematic training to develop various components of physical fitness to attain optimal performance during competition.

This PSEB 12th Class Physical Education Notes Chapter 1 Physical Fitness will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 12th Class Physical Education Notes Chapter 1 Physical Fitness

→ The term Physical fitness has different notions for different segments of people.

→ It not only refers to being physically fit but also refers to a balanced state of mind.

→ A person can only be considered fit if he is able to function well without any undue fatigue or tiredness.

→ A person who is fit both on physical and mental aspects stays strong in every sphere of life.

→ Now, let’s discuss the definition of physical fitness.

→ It is the ability of an individual to work effectively and efficiently with joy and pleasure.

→ According to David R. Lamb, “Physical fitness is the capacity to meet the present and potential physical challenges of fife with success.”

→ In order to achieve the optimum level of physical fitness one must possess basic components such as strength, speed, endurance, agility, flexibility, and coordinative abilities.

→ If a person is having these components, then he will be considered to be physically fit.

→ But, there are various factors that may influence the physical fitness of an individual such as anatomical structure, physiological and psychological makeup, posture, diet, lifestyle, inactivity, injury, age and gender, etc.

→ So, these factors are responsible to have a major influence on the physical fitness of an individual.

→ Hence, physical fitness plays a vital role to live healthy, prosperous, and conducive life in the present scenario of technological advancement.

→ It helps in the proper growth and development with the efficient functioning of the physiological systems in the body.

→ These developments ultimately induce the feeling of a balanced state of mental health and physical health of a person.

This PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 2 Acids, Bases and Salts will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 2 Acids, Bases and Salts

→ The sour taste of foods is due to acids and the bitter taste is due to bases present in them. Acids turn blue litmus into red and bases turn the red litmus into the blue.

→ Acids and bases neutralize each other’s effects.

→ Acids and bases can be tested using litmus, turmeric, methyl orange, and phenolphthalein indicators.

→ On passing carbon dioxide gas through lime water, lime water turns milky.

→ On passing, excess carbon dioxide gas through lime water, its milky colour disappears due to the formation of soluble calcium bicarbonate.

→ Bases turn phenolphthalein pink in colour.

→ Acids and bases react to produce salt and water.

→ The flow of current in the solution is due to ions present in the solution.

→ In acids H+ ions are present. Acids produce hydrogen ion H⁺(aq) in a solution due to which solutions become acidic.

→ Bases produce hydroxide (OH^–) ions in water.

→ Alkali is a base that dissolves in water.

→ Bases are soapy to touch, bitter, and corrosive.

→ All acids produce H⁺(aq) and bases produce OH^–(aq) in an aqueous solution.

→ The process of the dissolving of acids or bases in water is highly exothermic, therefore to dilute them these should be added and mixed slowly in water. Never add water to concentrated acid.

→ A universal indicator is a mixture of several indicators.

→ Universal indicators show different colors for different concentrations of hydrogen ions in the solution.

→ A scale known as the pH scale has been developed for measuring the concentration of hydrogen ions present in the solution.

→ The ‘p’ in pH stands for ‘potenz’ this is a German word which means power.

→ On the pH scale, we can measure pH generally from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic).

→ Higher is the concentration of hydronium ion, less is the value of pH. A neutral solution has a pH value of 7.

→ If the value of pH is less than 7 then the solution is acidic and if pH lies between 7 to 14 then the solution is basic.

→ Those acids which produce a large number of H⁺ ions are called strong acids and those acids which produce less H⁺ ions are weak acids.

→ Our body works in the range of 7.0 to 7.8.

→ When the pH value of rainwater is less than 5.6 it is called acid rain.

→ To get rid of acidity in the body, and antiacid like magnesium hydroxide which is a weak base is used.

→ If the pH value is less than 5.5 in the mouth, decay of teeth starts.

→ Nettle is a herbaceous plant that causes painful stings due to methanoic acid present in stinging hair. A traditional remedy is rubbing the area with the leaf of the dock plant.

→ Common salt (NaCl) is produced by the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.

→ Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime.

→ Bleaching powder is used in the paper and textile industry for bleaching. It acts as an oxidant and as a disinfectant.

→ Baking soda (NaHCO₃) is produced from sodium chloride.

→ Sodium hydrogen carbonate is a mild non-corrosive base. It is used in the production of Baking powder and used in the preparation of cakes. It is also used in fire extinguishers.

→ Washing soda (NagCO₃.10H₂O) is prepared from sodium chloride. It is used in the glass, soap, paper industries. It is used to remove the permanent hardness of the water.

→ The chemical formula for hydrated copper sulfate is CuSO₄.5H₂O and of gypsum is CaSO₄.2H₂O.

→ Plaster of Paris is obtained from calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO₄. \(\frac{1}{2}\) H₂O) by heating it at 373K.

→ Plaster of Paris is used for making toys and material for decoration.

→ Indicators: These are the substances that give different colors in acidic and basic solutions e.g. litmus, turmeric, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, etc.

→ Olfactory Indicators: There are some substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic media, which are known as olfactory indicators.

→ Acid: Those compounds which have one or more hydrogen atoms and which give hydrogen (H⁺) or hydronium (H₃O⁺) ions (H₃O⁺) ion in an aqueous solution are called acids. These are sour in taste.

→ Ionization: It is a process in which a substance produces ions in water, ionization.

→ Basicity of an acid: Basicity of an acid is the number of hydronium ions [H⁺] produced when one molecule of acid gets completely ionized in an aqueous solution.

→ Base: Bases are those compounds which are metal oxides or metal hydroxide or aqueous ammonia and these react with hydronium ion (H₃O⁺) of acids to produce salt and water.

→ Neutralization: Due to the reaction between acids and bases, salt and water are produced. This is called a neutralization reaction.

→ Alkali: Those basic hydroxides which on dissolving in water form hydroxyl (OH^–) ions, are called alkali.

→ Universal indicator: It is a mixture of various organic substances which show different colours with solutions having different pH values.

→ Dissociation: When a molecule or ionic compound dissociates into two or more atoms or ions, this is called dissociation.

→ Chemical dissociation: A reaction in which a molecule of a compound breaks into atoms or ions is called chemical dissociation.

→ The water of Crystallisation: Water, which is present in crystals of a substance is called water of crystallization. e.g., FeSO₄.7H₂O, Al₂O₃.2H₂O, CuSO₄.5H₂O, Na₂CO₃.10H₂O.

→ Efflorescence: The process of release of crystalline water from hydrated salts into the air is called efflorescence.

→ Deliquescence: This is a process in which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and dissolves in the absorbed water to form a solution.

→ Dilution: On mixing acid or base in water, the concentration of ions (H₃O⁺/OH^–) per unit volume becomes less. This is called dilution.

→ Chlor-alkali process: The electrolysis of sodium chloride solution is called chlor-alkali process.

This PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 1 Chemical Reactions and Equations will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 10th Class Science Notes Chapter 1 Chemical Reactions and Equations

→ In a chemical reaction, old bonds in the reactants are broken forming new bonds to give products.

→ A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction.

→ By using chemical formulae instead of words, chemical equations can be made more useful and concise.

→ According to the law of conservation of mass matter (or Mass) can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

→ If the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the arrow in a chemical reaction then the chemical equation is a balanced equation.

→ The method used to balance chemical equations is known as the Hit-and-Trial method since we make trials to balance the equation by using the smallest whole number coefficient.

→ The solid, gas, liquid, and aqueous states of reactants and products are represented by the notations: (s), (g), (l), and (aq) respectively.

→ When reactants and products are present as solutions in water then the word aqueous (aq) is written.

→ When (g) is written with water, it means that water is present in the form of vapour.

→ A reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a single product is known as a combination reaction.

→ The chemical formula for marble is CaCO₃.

→ After two three days of whitewashing, calcium carbonate is formed which gives a shiny finish to the walls.

→ We get energy from food.

→ During digestion, food is broken into fine particles of simpler substances.

→ The decomposition of vegetable matter into compost is an example of an exothermic reaction.

→ A reaction in which a single reactant breaks down to give simpler products is called a decomposition reaction.

→ On heating, crystals of ferrous sulfate crystals lose water, and their color changes.

→ NO₂ fumes are brown in colour.

→ The white colour of silver chloride changes into a grey colour in sunlight.

→ The chemical reactions in which energy is given out are called exothermic reactions.

→ Those reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions.

→ Those reactions in which there is an exchange of ions between the reactants are called double displacement reactions.

→ Those reactions in which precipitates are formed are known as precipitate reactions.

→ If in a reaction one of the reactants gets oxidized and the other gets reduced, then such a reaction is called a redox reaction.

→ In a reaction, a substance is oxidized when there is a gain of O₂ or a loss of H₂ in it.

→ A substance is reduced when it gains H₂ or loses O₂.

→ When a metal comes in contact with acid or moisture around it, gets corroded and the process is called corrosion.

→ Examples of corrosion are black coating on silver and green coating on copper.

→ Oxidation of oils and fats become rancid and their taste and smell change.

→ To slow down the oxidation process of food materials these are kept in air-tight containers.

→ Chemical change: It is a reaction in which new substances are formed. It is called a chemical change.

→ Chemical reaction: A process in which chemical change takes place is called a chemical reaction.

→ Reactants: Those substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants.

→ Products: Those substances which are formed in a chemical reaction are called products.

→ Combination reaction: It is a chemical reaction in which two or more two substances combine to form a single substance.

→ Decomposition reaction: It is a chemical reaction in which a molecule breaks into molecules of simpler substances.

→ Displacement reaction: A reaction in which a substance displaces another substance is called a displacement reaction.

→ Double displacement reaction: This is a reaction in which there is a mutual exchange between two different atoms or groups of atoms.

→ Neutral solution: When an acid and a base are mixed in a proper proportion, then we get a neutral solution.

→ Neutralisation reaction: When we get salt and water as the only products by mixing acid and base, then such a reaction is known as a Neutral reaction.

→ Oxidation: A substance is oxidized when there is a gain of oxygen or a loss of hydrogen in the substance.

→ Reduction: A substance is reduced when there is a loss of oxygen and a gain of hydrogen in the substance.

→ Redox reaction: A reaction in which oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously is called a redox reaction.

→ Exothermic reaction: Those reactions in which heat is produced along with the products are called exothermic reactions.

→ Endothermic reactions: Those reactions in which heat is absorbed are called endothermic reactions.

→ Precipitation reactions: When two solutions are mixed and due to reaction between them a white coloured substance (or some other colour) is formed which is insoluble in water, then this is called a precipitation reaction.

→ Fermentation: The change of carbonic substances with the help of microorganisms or enzymes into simple carbonic substances is called fermentation.

→ Rancidity: When fat/oil-containing food materials are left for a long time then due to oxidation there is a change in their smell and taste, this change is called rancidity.

→ Reducing agent: That substance that gets oxidised itself or reduces the other substances by giving electrons is called a reducing agent.

→ Oxidizing agent: That substance that gets reduced itself or oxidizes the other substances by gaining electrons is called an oxidizing agent.

This PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

→ During the 19th and 20th centuries, many changes came in the European society and it is said that Sociology originated to study such changes.

→ From the 17th-19th centuries, many philosophers wrote new books which gave a great contribution to the emergence of sociology. Montesquieu and Rousseau are quite important among them.

→ Auguste Comte was a French philosopher and is considered as the Father of Sociology.

→ He wrote a book ‘The Course on Positive Philosophy’ in which in 1839, he used the word ‘Sociology’. He called it a science of society.

→ Comte gave the theory of Positivism and said that social phenomenon can also be understood with scientific explanation and positivism is that method.

→ So, positivism is the systematic method of observation, experience, comparison, and historical method with which society can be scientifically studied.

→ Comte studied different societies and said that to reach the present stage, society had to cross through three stages and these stages are the Theological stage, Metaphysical stage, and Positivistic stage. This is Comte’s law of three stages.

→ Karl Marx was a German Philosopher who is known for his views given on class and class struggle.

→ The concepts of communism and socialism were also given by Karl Marx.

→ Marx was of the view that the history of society, is the history of class struggle.

→ There exist two classes in all the societies-capitalist class which owns all the means of production and labour class which is not having anything to sell except its labour.

→ There is the existence of conflict between the both to get more and this is known as class struggle.

→ Emile Durkheim is also known as one of the founding fathers of sociology.

→ He tried to establish sociology as a science. He was the first professor in the subject of sociology.

→ Durkheim gave a great contribution to the subject of sociology and some of the important concepts given by him are the concept of Social Fact, Theory of Suicide, the theory of Division of Labour, the Concept of Religion, etc.

→ Durkheim was of the view that the concept of division of labour existed in society right from ancient times.

→ The nature of society is determined due to the division of labour.

→ Max Weber is one of the important sociologists and founding fathers of sociology.

→ Like Marx, he was also a German Philosopher.

→ He gave many concepts to sociology such as the concept of social action, Verstehen, Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism, Authority and its types, Bureaucracy, etc.

→ Class: Group of people whose means of production are common.

→ Authority: It is a form of power supported by the norms of a social system and accepted as legitimate by those who participate in it.

→ Social Action: It is an act that cares about the actions and reactions of individuals. If the acting individual takes account of others’ behaviour, it is social.

→ Class Consciousness: The awareness among members of a class about their common motives.

→ Class Struggle: There exists a conflict of interests between capitalist and labour classes. This conflict of interests becomes a reason for class struggle. When class consciousness increases among the people, class struggle also increases.

→ Positivism: In positivism, it is considered that society acts according to certain rules which can be discovered.

→ Mechanical Solidarity: The sense of unity among the members of a homogeneous society is called mechanical solidarity.

→ Organic Solidarity: In many societies, people have differences among them and that’s why they depend upon each other. The unity which exists in such a society is known as organic solidarity.

This PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 11 Social Change will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 11 Social Change

→ Change is the law of nature. There is nothing in this world that has not yet changed. Even nature changes itself from time to time.

→ When change comes in different parts of society and the change affects the structural change comes in the ways of living of the people.

→ There are many features of social change such as it is a universal process, speed of changes is different in different societies, it is community change, no prediction regarding change is possible, it is the result of many interactions, it can be planned as well as unplanned, etc.

→ There are many types of social change such as evolution, development, progress, and revolution.

→ Many a time these words are used for each other but in Sociology, they are very much different from each other.

→ The meaning of evolution is equal change internally. This is a very slow process and social institutions change from simple to complex.

→ Development is also an aspect of social change.

→ When change comes in anything in the desired direction, it is known sis development.

→ Different sociologists have given different bases of development.

→ Progress is another type of social change. It means to move towards achieving objectives.

→ Progress is the efforts made to achieve objectives which is definite and which get scope ration from social values.

→ Revolution brings a sudden and fast change in society with which old structure comes to an end and new structure comes forward.

→ Many a time people become so dissatisfied that they stand up against the system. It is known as revolution.

→ The revolution of 1789 A.D. in France was a change of such type.

→ Many factors influence the direction and speed of social change such as natural factors, beliefs, and values, social reforms, demographic factors, technological factors, educational factors, etc.

→ Diffusion: The process by which cultural traits spread from one culture to another.

→ Innovation: Introduction of new ideas, techniques, etc., and better use of existing ideas and technology.

→ Social Change: Change in the functions of social structure and social system.

This PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 10 Social Stratification will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 10 Social Stratification

→ Inequality exists everywhere in society, Someone is black, white, poor, rich, thin, fat, literate, or illiterate. There are many other bases which we can find in our society.

→ Divison of society in different layers on different bases is known as social stratification.

→ We cannot find any society where stratification doesn’t exist.

→ It exists everywhere in ancient societies, medieval societies, and modern societies.

→ Stratification has many features such as is a universal process, is social in nature, its type is different in different societies, relations in it are based on superiority and inferiority.

→ Mainly four forms of stratification are available in our societies and these are caste, class, feudalism, and slavery.

→ Indian society is greatly influenced by the caste system.

→ A caste is an endogamous group that keeps certain restrictions on its members regarding relationships, social intercourse, etc. The caste of an individual was fixed according to his birth.

→ In modern societies, a new form of stratification has come forward and this is the class system.

→ Class is a group of people who are similar to each other on a particular basis.

→ For example, upper class, middle class, lower class, labour class, industrialist class, doctor class, etc.

→ Feudalism was one of the important aspects of medieval European society.

→ One individual was given a very large piece of land and was made feudal lord.

→ This land was transmitted to his children with which they remained rich.

→ During the 19th and 20th centuries, slavery prevailed in many parts of the world.

→ One person was purchased and sold as a slave and the owner kept unlimited rights over him.

→ G.S. Ghurye was one of the Indian sociologists who gave his views on the caste system.

→ According to him, the caste system is so complex that it is not possible to define it.

→ That’s why he gave six features of the caste system.

→ After the Indian independence, many changes came in the caste system and the changes are still going on.

→ Now caste system is declining day by day.

→ Caste restrictions no more prevail, caste privileges come to an end, constitutional provisions provide equality to all and all these factors have played a very important role in the decline of this system.

→ Many factors contributed to bringing changes in the caste system such as socio-reform movements, modern education, urbanisation, modernisation, industrialisation, development of means of transport and communication, constitutional provisions, etc.

→ Mainly three types of classes prevail in our society: Upper class, middle class, and lower class. The difference between these classes is mainly on the basis of wealth.

→ A caste is a closed group which cannot be changed in any case but a class is an open group that can be changed with an individual’s ability and hard work.

→ According to Karl Marx, in different ages, there prevailed two classes.

→ The first one is the capitalist class and the second one is labour class.

→ The conflict remained there, between them, all the time and this is known as class conflict.

→ New trends are also coming into the class system. During the last few decades, a new class has emerged and this is the middle class.

→ The upper class always exploited the lower class with the help of the middle class.

→ Varna: During ancient times, society was divided into many parts on the basis of Occupation, and each part was known as varna. There were four Varnas-Brahmin, Ksljatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra.

→ Caste: An endogamous group that keeps certain restrictions on its members regarding social intercourse.

→ Class: The economic group which can be differentiated from the other economic group on any basis.

→ Feudalism: During the medieval period, there prevailed a very powerful system in the medieval European society in which one person was made a feudal lord by giving a large piece of land. He was authorized to collect tax from the farmer.

→ Stratification: The process of dividing society into different layers on different bases is known as stratification.

This PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 9 Social Structure will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 9 Social Structure

→ There are many basic concepts of sociology and social structure is one of them.

→ Herbert Spencer was the first Sociologist who used the word social structure.

→ After him, many other Sociologists such as Talcott Parsons, Radcliffe Brown, Maclver, etc. also wrote about it.

→ Society has many parts which are connected in. one way or the other. All these parts are interrelated.

→ The systematic form of these interconnected parts is known as social structure.

→ All these parts are abstract but they direct us in one way or the other.

→ Social structure has many features. For example, it is abstract, it has many inter-related parts, one system exists in all of its parts, it regulates our behaviour, it is universal, it expressed the exterior form of society, etc.

→ Herbert Spencer wrote a book ‘The Principles of Sociology’ in which he used the word social structure and compared it with the living body.

→ He was of the view that the way in which different parts of the human body are needed for its smooth functioning, in the same way, different parts of social structure play a very important role in its smooth functioning.

→ There are several elements of social structure and status and role are quite important among all.

→ The meaning of status is the position given to an individual while living in society.

→ One person is given many a status such as officer, father, son, President of a club, etc.

→ Status is of two types – Ascribed and Achieved.

→ Ascribed status is that which one gets automatically without any effort.

→ Achieved status is that which one gets due to his efforts and ability.

→ The role is the collection of expectations that are expected to be fulfilled by an individual.

→ Many roles are attached to each status. Only with the role, we come to know that how anyone will act while sitting on a particular status.

→ There are many features of the role such as it is learned, it is the functional aspect of status, it has a psychological base, etc.

→ Status and role are deeply related as they are the two sides of the same coin.

→ If anyone is given a status then automatically role is attached with the status.

→ Without a role, status is of no importance and without status, the role cannot be performed.

→ Social Structure: Orderly arrangement of different parts is known as social structure.

→ Role Set: When someone gets many roles.

→ Role Conflict: When an individual gets many roles and a conflict starts among them.

→ Role: The expected behaviour of an individual who holds a particular status.

→ Status: Status is the social position of an individual which he needs to obey.

→ Ascribed Status: The status which one gets on the basis of birth.

→ Achieved Status: The status which is achieved through skill and talent.

This PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 8 Polity, Religion, Economy and Education will help you in revision during exams.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Notes Chapter 8 Polity, Religion, Economy and Education

→ There exist many institutions in our society. In social institutions, we can include marriage, family, and kinship.

→ Except for social institutions, there are many other institutions such as political, religious, economic, educational, etc.

→ Political System is a sub-system of society. It fixes such human roles which are necessary to maintain law and order in society. There is a great relationship between polity and society.

→ In Sociology, information on political institutions is used to understand many concepts such as power, leadership, authority, etc. Such political institutions help us in maintaining peace and security in society.

→ Power is the ability of individuals or groups to carry out their will even when opposed by others.

→ A definite and fixed amount of power exists in society.

→ Few groups have more power and they exercise their power over the group which is having less power.

→ Power is applied with the help of an authority. Authority is a form of power that is considered just and legitimate.

→ Those who have authority, use power because they consider it justified.

→ Different societies have different states. In a few societies, there is no concept of state and they are considered stateless societies.

→ Such states existed in ancient societies. In modern societies, authority is included in the concept of state and it is obtained from the people.

→ Max Weber gave three types of authority-traditional, legal and charismatic.

→ Father’s authority is traditional, Government’s authority is legal, and accepting any leader’s will is called charismatic authority.

→ The state is the basic institution of the political system. It has four essential elements and these are population, geographical area, sovereignty, and government.

→ There are three organs of government and these are-Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary.

→ To maintain State and government, a proper balance between these three organs is necessary.

→ The present-day political system runs with democracy. It is of two types—direct and indirect.

→ In a direct democracy, people decide on their own and in indirect democracy, people’s elected representatives make all the decisions.

→ The government in our country has adopted the decentralized system and govts, are made till local level.

→ In rural areas, Panchayat is established at the village level, Block Samiti at the block level, and Zila Parished at the district level and they are responsible for doing development in their respective areas.

→ In a democracy, political parties keep a very important place.

→ A political party is a group of people whose main objective is to attain power by contesting elections.

→ Few parties are national parties and few are regional parties.

→ Interest groups keep a very important place in a democracy.

→ They are attached to any particular group and they work to achieve the interests of their group.

→ Religion has existed in society since the time when human society started.

→ Religion is nothing but faith in super-natural power that is beyond our existence and reach.

→ Many religions exist in our country India such as Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism (Parsi), etc.

→ India is a multi-religious country where people of many religions live in peace and harmony with each other.

→ Every person needs money to buy food, cloth, house, health services, etc. and all these are important parts of our economy. Economic institutions take care of our income and expenditure.

→ Different societies have different economies. Few societies have collective economies, few are pastoral economies, rural economies, industrial economies, and capitalist economies. Karl Marx also gave a new economy called socialist economy.

→ The concept of division of labor is not new to our society.

→ When people start to do specific work and are unable to do all the works, it is called specialisation and division of labour.

→ The caste system and Jajmani system in India are one such type of division of labour.

→ If we observe our society, we can say that nothing in our society, is possible without education.

→ Education changes an uncivilized person into a civilized individual.

→ Education is of two types – formal and informal.

→ Formal education is that which we get in school, college, etc. and informal education is that which we get from our daily life experiences.

→ Authority: Power established by the political system in its geographical area.

→ Division of Labour: The system in which occupations are divided into different parts and every occupation is given to an individual or group.

→ Economy: System of production, distribution, and consumption.

→ Globalisation: The process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, ideas, products, and other aspects of culture.

→ Totem: Considering any tree, plant, stone, or any other thing as sacred.

→ State Society: The society in which formal organisation of government exists.

→ Stateless society: The society in which there is no formal organisation of government.

→ Pressure groups: Such groups in a democratic system work for the interests of a particular group.

→ State: State is a group with four essential features – population, geographical area, sovereignty, and government.