Class 12

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 11 Party System in India Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 11 Party System in India

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Describe the characteristics of Indian Party System.
Or
Explain in detail six features of Indian Party System.
Or
Describe any six features of Indian Political Party System.
Answer:
Present age is an era of democracy. Political parties are inevitable in democracy and thus both are inseparable. India is the biggest democratic country in the world and hence the existence of political parties here is natural one. But political parties haven’t developed on the same pattern as they have grown in England, America and other western countries. Political parties in India didn’t originate to dethorne the ruling aristocratic group but to fight against foreign imperialism by starting a national movement for freedom.

Another aim of the National Congress was to eliminate those elements from Indian society which hampered the social progress. Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 and afterwards, in 1906, Muslim League came into being and then in 1916 All India Hindu Mahasabha was established. Communist Party was founded in 1924 but it was banned during the Second World War. But when Russia joined hands with Allied nations in the Second World War, the Communist Party got a chance to develop. After independence, several political parties came into being. When first general elections were held in 1952, there were fourteen national political parties and fifty parties at the state level.

In January, 1977 four political parties Jan Sangh, Congress (O), Socialist Party, Bharatiya Lok Dal and rebel Congressmen formed Janata Party. But Janata Party was formed properly on May 1, 1977. The Congress faced a split in January, 1978 and Congress (I) came into existence. Bharatiya Janata Party was established on 6th April, 1980 and Bahujan Samaj Party on 14th April, 1984.

The Election Commission at present, recognised eight national and 53 state parties.
Indian party system has its own characteristics. Some of the main features are as follows:
1. Multiple Party System:
India has neither single party system as in China nor two party system as in England and America. We have multiple party system as Switzerland has. At Prerent the Election Commission recognized Seven National Parties and 59 state level parties. Seven National Parties are: Indian National Congress, Bharatiya Janata Party, C.P.I., Marxist Party, Trinmool Congress Party, Nationalist Congress Party, and Bahujan Samaj Party.

2. End of Dominance of a Single Party:
India’s Multiple Party System differs from the Multiple Party System in Western countries like France and others. Several political parties participate in election in India but The Congress dominated the scene at the centre as well as the states before 1967.

The Congress secured 364, 371, 261 and 283 seats in the elections of 1952, 1957, 1962 and 1967 respectively. The Congress didn’t succeed much in states in the elections of 1967, which resulted in the formation of non-Congress ministries in many states. But the non-Congress ministries didn’t avail of this golden opportunity and they tried to achieve their vested interests instead of serving the people.

Consequently these ministries could not stay for long. Mrs. Indira Gandhi held mid-term polls in 1971 and Congress swept the elections and it secured 352 seats in Lok Sabha. Out of 19 states, elections were held in eight states and Congress secured majority in all the eight states. Due to the dominance of the Congress some perceptive students of Indian Politics have expressed the view that India has a ‘One party dominance system’ (Rajni Kothari) or ‘One dominant party system’ (W.H. Morris Jones).

But the dominance of Congress came to an end in November, 1989 when Congress was badly mauled in the 9th general elections and the other parties entered the 9th Lok Sabha with sufficient strength. It was repeated. From 1991 to 2019 elections. The present position clearly indicates that the era of one party dominant system has come to an end.

3. Rise of Effective Opposition:
Another feature of the Indian party system is the rise of organised opposition as it exists in England. There was no effective opposition before the fourth general elections.

In 1977 an organised opposition originated with the defeat of the Congress. There was no recognised offical opposition in 1980 and in 1984. But in 1989 with the defeat of the Congress (I) a strong organised opposition came into existence. In the Lok Sabha elections of 1991 BJP was recognised as opposition party. In the eleventh Lok Sabha elections in 1996, BJP emerged as the single largest party.

In March 1998 Sharad Pawar of the Congress party was recognised as leader of the opposition in the twelfth Lok Sabha. The elections to the 13th Lok Sabha held in Sept.-Oct. 1999 returned the Congress with sufficient strength and it emerged as a strong opposition party. In the 16th and 17th Lok Sabha no party has been given recognition of the opposition party.

4. Communal Parties: Another characteristic of Indian Party system is the existence of communal parties.

5. Existence of Regional Parties:
Another very distinct peculiarity of Indian Party system is the existence of regional parties. At present Election Commission recognised 53 regional political parties. Major regional political parties are Shiromani Akali Dal, Indian National Lok Dal, Assam Gana Parishad, Jharkhand Party, Telugu Desham, National Conference, ADMK and DMK etc. The importance of regional political parties is increasing day by day. It seems as if an era of dependence of national parties on the regional parties has begun.

6. Registration of Political Parties:
The Representation of People’s Act, 1951 was amended in December, 1998 under which registration of political parties with the Election Commission is obligatory.

7. Lack of Discipline:
Lack of discipline among the party members is an important feature of the Indian Party system. Those who fail to get the party ticket to contest the election leave the party and either join the other party or contest the election as independent candidates. Lack of party discipline has been a source of defection, split, factionalism, groupism and poiltical turn-coatism in Indian politics.

8. Politics of Populism:
Almost all political parties adopt and follow populistic policies and raise populistic slogans for securing their vote banks. ‘Garibi Hatao’, ‘Rozgar Yojnas’, ‘Power to the people’, “Vote for Mandir’, ‘Protection of Panth’ are used as election slogans, as ploy for securing votes. In 1995 Telugu Desham party won a big majority in the State Legislative Assembly elections by promising to sell rice at Rs. 2 per kg.

9. Less Contact with the Masses:
Another feature of Indian party system is that parties do not always remain in touch with the masses. In India many political parties come into existence at the time of election and disappear with the end of election. Even permanent political parties organise themselves at the time of elections and try to establish contact with the public. The leaders of the political parties realise the importance of public contact during the election but they forget it as soon as the election ends. According to Dr. P.V.R. Rao, no political party except Communist Party can claim to have direct contact with the masses. In such circumstances Indian party system cannot work successfully.

10. Lack of Internal Democracy within the Political Parties:
The political parties lack internal democracy and are built from above around hierarchical frames. Majority of the political parties have not held elections of the party organisation at different levels for a long time.

11. Lack of Ideological Commitment:
Most political parties in India lack ideological commitment. In fact political parties are interested to capture power and for that they have been too willing to sacrifice their ideologies. Even the CPI (M) and the BJP have started addressing to current issues than to their ideologies.

12. Dissidents:
Another important aspect of Indian party system is the presence of dissidents. Generally speaking, Congress or Janata Dal or B.J.P. in every state has two groups ministerialists and dissidents. Dissidents work in full swing as the leaders are always in competition to grab power. During Janata Party regime even at the centre there was dissident group led by Charan Singh and Raj Narayan. Due to revolt by dissidents against B.J.P. leadership, President’s rule was imposed in Gujarat in Sept. 1996.

13. Groupism within the Parties:
In every political party there is groupism and groupism leads to split in the party. There was a split in the Congress Party thrice in 1969, 1978 and 1995. Janata Dal was divided six times-in 1990, 1992,1993, 1994, 1997 and 1999. Groupism found in Akali Dal, D.M.K., Telugu Desam and many other political parties is responsible for split in these political parties.

14. Defections:
Indian party system is known for defections. There are many examples of defections from the first to fourth general elections but the number of defections after the fourth general elections increased so much that parliamentary form of government seemed to be an utter failure in India. Prime Minister Shri Morarji Desai had to resign in July, 1979 as many members left the Janata Party.

Defections took place abundantly before and after the Lok Sabha elections in 1980 and all was in favour of Congress (I). In January 1980, Haryana Chief Minister Shri Bhajan Lai joined Congress (I) by leaving the Janata Party along with 35 members. The Himachal Chief Minister Shri Shanta Kumar had to resign in February 1980, because of heavy defection. But in Jan. 1985, the 52nd Amendment in Constitution was passed to remove the evil of defections. But the evil of defections is not removed. Even now we find many examples of defections.

15. More Emphasis on Leadership than on Programme:
Generally, political parties in India attach more importance to leadership than to their programmes.

16. Non-Principled Alliance of Political Parties:
Another important feature and defect of Indian Party System is that parties are always prepared to have non-principled alliance to achieve their vested interests.

Conclusion:
The detailed analysis of the Indian Party System clearly brings out the shortcomings of party system. The Indian party system lacks many important qualities which are essential for the success of the party system of government. Multiple party system, lack of organised political parties, presence of regional and communal parties, defections etc. are not healthy things for the success of parliamentary form of government in India.

Question 2.
Describe the Policies and Programmes of The Congress Party.
Or
Write in detail the Foreign Policy of The Congress (I).
Answer:
Indian National Congress is the oldest, well-organised and very important political party of India. After Independence, Congress Party dominated from 1947 to 1967 and from 1971 to 1977 as well as from 1980 to 1989. First split of the Congress took place in 1969 and second split in 1978 and third split in 1995. After the split of 1978 the Congress under the leadership of Mrs. Indira Gandhi was called The Congress (I). On March 12, 1996, the Election Commission recognised Congress (I) as the real Congress Party and it was allowed to
use ‘Hand’ as its party symbol. At present this party is known as Indian National Congress.

Policies And Programmes of Congress. At the time of 17th Lok Sabha election, Congress released the election manifesto in 2019. The manifesto asserted that the Congress is the only party which could govern and serve.
Following are the main policies and programmes mentioned in the election manifesto:
1. Congress pledges to give the highest priority to protecting existing jobs and creating new jobs.

2. Congress promises that all of the 4 lakh vacancies as on 1 April, 2019 in the Central Government, Central Public Sector Enterprises, Judiciary and Parliament will be filled before the end of March 2020.

3. Congress will work with State Governments to create new Seva Mitra positions (estimated at 10 lakh) in every Gram Panchayat and every Urban Local Body to ensure the effective delivery of government services to citizens.

4. Congress will link the definition of MSME to employment A business employing 10 persons or less will be ‘micro’; between 11 and 100 will be ‘small’; and between 101 and 500 will be ‘medium’.

5. Congress promises regulatory forbearance for Micro and Small Enterprises.

6. Congress promises to increase the share of India’s manufacturing sector from the current level of 16 per cent of GDP to 25 per cent within a period of 5 years and to make India a manufacturing hub for the world.

7. Congress will work with State Governments to set up New Industrial Towns with the required infrastructure and turn them into manufacturing hubs for a variety of industrial products.

8. Congress will announce a ‘Make for the World’ policy under which foreign and Indian companies will be invited to invest in ‘Exclusive Export-only Zones’, manufacture and export their entire production, pay no indirect taxes and pay a low rate of corporate tax.

9. Congress promises to augment the total length of national highways and increase the pace of construction.

10. Congress promises to massively modernise all outdated railway infrastructure.

11. Congress will formulate a policy on Clean Energy in existing power plants that use fossil fuels and promote Green Energy to enhance the share of solar and wind energy in the total supply of energy.

12. Congress promises to formulate a comprehensive policy on Urbanisation after wide consultation. We will address the issues concerning towns and cities including city governance, livelihoods, housing, habitat, pollution, climate change, urban transport and disaster management.

13. Congress will support State Governments to build new towns and cities as well as satellite towns.

14. Congress will introduce a new model of governance for towns and cities through a directly elected mayor with a fixed term of 5 years, an elected council and a separate administrative structure for each urban body.

15. Congress will enforce the 74th Amendment to the Constitution and ensure the devolution of powers, functions and funds to the Municipalities and Corporations, making them financially independent.

16. Congress promises the Right to Housing for the urban poor and protection from arbitrary eviction. We will build night shelters for the homeless so that no one will sleep in the open.

17. Congress will launch a Slum Upgradation and Transformation Scheme to ensure basic services such as drinking water, electricity and sanitation to slum dwellers. Slums will be transformed by replacing huts and kuccha dwellings with proper houses, roads and other public facilities.

18. Congress will launch MGNREGA 3.0 to address issues of water security, soil quality and similar issues that aggravate farmers’ distress. To this end, Congress will:

• Increase the guaranteed days of employment up to 150 days in cases where 100 days have been achieved in a block/district;
• Use MGNREGA labour in the Waterbodies Restoration Mission and the Wasteland Regeneration Mission; and
• Use MGNREGA funds to build public assets such as primary health centres, classrooms, libraries etc.

19. Congress promises to connect all villages and habitations with a population of 250 with a road under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana. Boradband connectivity will be provided to all village Panchayats by the year 2021.

20. Congress will encourage and support micro and small enterprises that collectivise unorganised sector workers including waste pickers and scrap collectors.

21. Congress will ensure that notified minimum wages are paid to workers in the unorganised sector.

22. Congress will ratify ILO Convention 87 (Freedom of Association) and ILO Convention 98 (Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining).

23. The Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014 will be implemented in letter and spirit.

24. Debt is a civil liability and Congress will not allow criminal proceedings to be instituted against a farmer who is unable to pay his/her debt.

25. In order to ensure priority to the issues affecting the agriculture sector, we will present a separate “Kisan Budget”.

26. Congress promises to establish a permanent National Commission on Agricultural Development and Planning consisting of farmers, agricultural scientists and agricultural economists to examine and advise the government on how to make agriculture viable, competitive and remunerative. The recommendations of the Commission shall be ordinarily binding on the government. The Commission will subsume the existing Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices and recommend appropriate minimum support prices.

27. Congress also promises to establish a Commission on Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labour to advise on policies and programmes that will help them earn income from higher wages and from non-crop based agriculture such as horticulture and floriculture, dairying and poultry.

28. Congress will completely re-design the BJP government’s failed Fasal Bima Yojana (Crop Insurance Scheme) that has only enriched the insurance companies at the cost of the farmers. We will direct insurance companies to offer crop insurance and charge premiums on the principle of ‘no profit, no loss’.

29. Congress promises to reverse the BJP Government’s fiddling with the target of fiscal deficit. Congress promises to achieve the target of 3 per cent of GDP by 2020-21 and remain .under that limit.

30. Monetary policy is the province of the Reserve Bank of India. Congress promises to reverse the unwarranted and illegal interference by the BJP government into the functioning of the RBI.

31. Congress will adopt a policy on foreign trade that will ensure that exports become once again a key driver of economic growth.

32. Congress believes that the size of India’s GDP and the level of Total Expenditure (Central and State Governments) allow us to undertake an ambitious programme of cash transfer to the poorest sections of the people without in anyway affecting the goal of fiscal prudence. The main features of the Minimum Income Support Programme (MISP) or Nyuntam Aay Yojana (NYAY) will be:

• The target population will be 5 crore families who constitute the poorest 20 per cent of all families. They will be the beneficiaries of MISP or NYAY.
• Each family will be guaranteed a cash transfer of 72,000 a year.
• As far as possible, the money will be transferred to the account of a woman of the family who has a bank account or who will be urged to open a bank account;
• There will be a Design phase (3 months) followed by a Pilot and Testing phase (6-9 months) before roll-out.
• The rollout will be implemented in phases.
• The estimated cost will be < 1 per cent of GDP in Year 1 and < 2 per cent of GDP in Year 2 and thereafter.
• As the nominal GDP grows and families move out of poverty, the cost will decline as a proportion of GDP.

33. Congress promises to enact the Direct Taxes Code in the first year of our government. It will usher in an era of simplicity, transparency, tax equity, easy compliance and impartial administration.

34. Congress promises that the Direct Taxes Code will levy taxes at reasonable and progressive rates having regard to the level of current incomes, income inequalities and the principles of tax equity.

35. Congress promises to review and replace the current GST laws with the GST 2.0 regime that will truly reflect the intent and purpose of a non-cascading, value-added, indirect tax.

36. The GST 2.0 regime will be based on a single, moderate, standard rate of tax on all goods and services.

37. The GST 2.0 regime will levy a special rate of duty on demerit goods.

38. Congress promises that Real Estate (all sectors), Petroleum Products, Tobacco and Liquor will be brought within the ambit of GST 2.0 in a manner and time period not exceeding 2 years agreed to in the GST Council.

39. Congress promises a comprehensive review of the concept, role and functions of Public Sector Banks (PSBs) in order to make PSBs robust and competitive with healthy balance sheets.

40. Congress will amalgamate 2 or more PSBs so that there will be only 6-8 PSBs with a national presence and reach. Each of the amalgamated PSBs will be adequately capitalised.

41. Congress promises to work with industry to increase the expenditure on science and technology to 2 per cent of GDP.

42. Congress will establish a separate Ministry of Fisheries and Welfare of Fisherfolk.

43. Congress will constitute a National Fisherfolk Commission to promote fishing and the welfare of fisherfolk. It will address indebtedness and appropriate funding mechanisms for fishing.

44. Congress will reverse the trend of declining defence spending under the NDA government, and will ensure that defence spending is increased to meet the requirements of the Armed Forces. We will expedite all modernisation programmes of the armed forces in a transparent manner.

45. The key to internal security is intelligence, analysis and quick response. Congress will put in place the Multi-Agency Centre and the NSG regional hubs. Congress also proposes to establish the National Counter-Terrorism Centre and NATGRID.

46. Congress affirms its firm belief in the continued relevance of the policy of friendship, peaceful co-existence, non-alignment, independence of thought and action, and increased bilateral engagement in its relations with other countries of the world.

47. Congress promises to establish a National Council on Foreign Policy consisting of members of the Cabinet Committee on Security, scholars, domain experts and diplomats to advise the Government on matters concerning foreign policy.

48. Congress will work closely with all countries of the world, and particularly India’s neighbours and the G-20 countries, in various multi-lateral forums and institutions.

49. Congress will re-double the efforts to win for India permanent membership in the UN Security Council and the Nuclear Suppliers Group.

50. Congress will work with SAARRC and ASEAN countries to enhance the volume of trade, investments, tourism and cultural exchanges and reap the benefits of geographical proximity.

51. Congress will increase the strength of border guarding forces—BSF, SSB, ITBP and Assam Rifles—and post them on or close to the border to prevent infiltration, illegal immigration and smuggling.

52. Under the UPA Governments, Congress accepted the principle of One Rank One Pension (OROP) and took 3 steps in 2006, 2010 and 2013 towards implementing the same. In February 2014, the UPA Government decided to close the gap for all retirees in all ranks. Ex-servicemen believe that the BJP Government has not implemented OROP to their satisfaction. Congress promises to remove the anomalies in the implementation of OROP.

53. Congress promises to re-establish the Ministry of Overseas Indians that will be asked to address the concerns of NRIs including their safety, conditions of work, social security and health benefits, education of their children, need for financial services and safe return to India.

54. Congress promises to re-constitute the National Integration Council to promote unity, solidarity, communal harmony, fraternity and reconciliation. Congress promises to work with the Council to fight divisive and communal forces that are a danger to the unity and solidarity of the country.

55. Congress will review the Right to Information Act, 2005 in the light of its working in the last 14 years and omit provisions that may have diluted the Act and add provisions to strengthen the Act. In accordance with the letter and spirit of the Act, Congress promises to appoint as Information Commissioners qualified persons drawn from different sections of the society.

56. Congress promises to take forward the idea of the GST Council of Ministers and establish such Councils for Agriculture, Education and Healthcare.

57. Congress will implement the recommendations of the Fifteenth Finance Commission and will urge the States to implement the recommendations of their respective State Finance Commissions.

58. Congress, as the author of the 73rd and 74th Constitution Amendments, will prevail upon the States to implement those provisions in letter and spirit and devolve funds, functions and functionaries upon the Panchayats and Municipalities.

59. Congress will give Special Category status to Andhra Pradesh as promised by Dr. Manmohan Singh on 20 February 2014 in the Rajya Sabha.

60. Congress will enhance representation at all levels of the judiciary for women, SC, ST, OBC minorities and other under-represented sections of society.

61. Omit Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code (that defines the offence of ‘sedition’) that has been misused and, in any event, has become redundant because of subsequent laws.

62. Amend the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 in order to strike a balance between the powers of security forces and the human rights of citizens and to remove immunity for enforced disappearance, sexual violence and torture.

63. Congress promises to set up a National Election Fund to which any person may make a contribution. Funds will be allocated at the time of elections to recognised political parties in accordance with criteria laid down by law.

64. Congress will ensure that EVMs and WPATs are tamperproof.

65. ‘Police’ and ‘Law & Order’ are State subjects. Congress promises to consult State Governments and reach a consensus on the police reforms directed by the Supreme Court in the Prakash Singh case. Based on the consensus, Congress will pass a Model Police Act and the States will be advised to adopt and enact in the State Legislatures.

66. Congress will scrap the Niti Aayog, which has proved to be a noisy and incompetent intermeddler. Congress promises to constitute a Planning Commission with re-defined responsibilities such as to formulate medium and long-term perspective plans and to function as an independent expert body to perform crucial functions in a federal system.

67. Congress promises to pass the Constitution (Amendment) Bill to provide for reservation of 33 per cent of seats for women in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies in the first session of the 17th Lok Sabha and in the Rajya Sabha.

68. Congress promises a holistic agenda of affirmative action for SCs, STs and OBCs who constitute a little more than 75 per cent of the population. Hence, Congress promises to set up an Equal Opportunities Commission, which will recommend affirmative action strategies and policies to achieve equality and equity in education, employment and in economic opportunities. We will implement the recommendations of the Equal Opportunities Commission.

69. Congress affirms that the whole of Jammu & Kashmir is part of India. We also acknowledge the unique history of the State and the unique circumstances under which the State acceded to India that led to the inclusion of Article 370 in the Constitution of India. Nothing will be done or allowed to change the Constitutional position.

70. Congress promises to restore the Special Category status to the NES.

71. Congress promises to enforce strictly the provisions of the Maintenance and Welfare of Senior Citizens Act, 2017.

72. Congress promises that the total government expenditure on healthcare will be doubled to 3 per cent of GDP by the year 2023-24. The Annual Budgets will indicate the step up in each year in order to achieve the target in 2023-24.

73. Congress promises to double the allocation for Education to 6 per cent of GDP in the 5 years ending 2023-24. A path forward will be laid down in the regular Budget for 2019-20 and specific annual targets will be set.

74. Congress promises universal access to potable drinking water. The National Drinking Water Mission will be reviewed and strengthened. Budget allocations will be substantially increased.

75. Congress will constitute, by law, an independent, empowered and transparent Environment Protection Authority (EPA) to establish, monitor and enforce environmental standards and regulations. The EPA will replace all other bodies that currently exercise jurisdiction and powers.

76. Congress promises to re-visit the National Disaster Management Act, 2005 and incorporate changes, based upon the experience gained in the working of the Act and in managing natural disasters that have occurred over the last 14 years.

77. Congress promises to respect the autonomy of the Indian Olympic Association and the Apex Body of each sport. Government will work with each body to promote the sport concerned.

Election Successes:
In the Lok Sabha elections of 1980, Congress (I) secured 351 seats out of 525 seats and thus won two-thirds majority in the House. But Congress (I) got 43% votes of the total votes polled. The election statistics reveal the fact that Congress (I) mostly lost those seats where the opposition parties could organise the people on social and economic basis. Congress (I) formed the government under the leadership of Mrs. Indira Gandhi.

Congress (I), under the leadership of Mr. Rajiv Gandhi, won an impressive victory in the eighth general elections to the Lok Sabha. It got 401 seats out of 508 for which elections were held in December 1984. It was a great personal triumph for Mr. Rajiv Gandhi, an unprecedented sweep for the Congress (I).

In the Lok Sabha elections of 1989, Congress (I) secured 194 seats and Mr. Rajiv Gandhi resigned from the Prime Ministership. In the ninth State Assemblies elections in Feb. 1990, Congress (I) was defeated badly in M.P., Rajasthan, Bihar, Himachal, Gujarat and Orissa. Congress (I) was able to form governments only in Maharashtra and Arunachal Pradesh. In the tenth Lok Sabha elections in May-June 1991, Congress (I) secured 225 seats and its leader P.V. Narsimha Rao formed the government.

In April-May 1996, eleventh Lok Sabha elections were held and Congress Party secured only 140 seats. In February-March, 1998 Congress secured 142 seats in the 12th Lok Sabha elections. In the 14th Lok Sabha election Congress secured 145 seats. Dr. Manmohan Singh led the 19-party ruling coalition of United Progressive Alliance.

In the 15th Lok Sabha election held in 2009, Congress Party secured 206 seats and UPA formed government under the leadership of Dr. Manmohan Singh. In the 16th Lok Sabha election held in 2014, Congress Party secured only 44 seats. In the 17th Lok Sabha election held in 2019, Congress Party secured only 52 seats.

Question 3.
Describe the policies and functions of Bhartiya Janata Party.
Or
Evaluate policies and programme of Bharatiya Janata Party (B.J.P.).
Answer:
Though Janata Party faced a split in July 1979 on the issue of dual membership, this controversy didn’t end even after the split. On 19th March, 1980, the Parliamentary Board of Janata Party decided by majority vote that “no legislator or office-bearer of the Janata Party shall participate in the day-to-day activities of the R.S.S.” But the leaders of the erstwhile Jana Sangh Mr. Atal Behari Vajpayee, Mr. L.K. Advani and Nanji Deshmukh—expressed their strong reservation on it and recorded their dissent.

On 4th April, 1980, the National Executive of the Janata Party endorsed by a narrow majority the Central Parliamentary Board’s decision that legislators and office-bearers should not participate in the day-to-day activities of the R.S.S. With this decision of the national executive, split in the Janata Party was imminent. Soon after the decision was made known, some of the Jana Sangh leaders said: “We cannot help it. How can we remain in the party now?’

On 5th April, 1980, the members of former Jana Sangh group called a two-day national convention at Delhi and decided to form a new party. The conference was presided over by Mrs. Vijaya Raje Scindia. On 6th April, a new political organisation the Bharatiya Janata Party was born under the presidentship of former foreign minister Mr. Atal Behari Vajpayee. On April 24, 1980 the Election Commission granted recognition to the group led by Mr. Atal Behari Vajpayee as a ‘national party’ with the distinct name of the Bharatiya Janata Party. The B.J.P. was also allotted the symbol of ‘lotus’.

Policies and Programme of the Bharatiya Janata Party. At the time of 17th Lok Sabha elections B.J.P. released the election Sanklap Patra.
Following is the programme which the B.J.P. offers to the people for taking India to its destiny— a modern, peaceful and prosperous nation on the road to an exciting future.

1. B.J.P. believes that our security doctrine will be guided by our national security interest only. This is exemplified by the Surgical Strikes and the Air Strike carried out recently. We will firmly continue our policy of‘Zero Tolerance’
against terrorism and extremism and will continue to follow our policy of giving a free hand to our security forces in combating terrorism.

2. B. J.P. will speed up the purchases of outstanding defense related equipments and weapons.

3. In order to ensure self-reliance in procurement of defence equipment B.J.P. have taken several effective steps in the last five years. For instance, the most modern AK-203 automatic rifles are being manufactured at Amethi under our “Make in India in Defence’ initiative. B.J.P. is committed to focus on “Make in India in Defence’ to enable indigenous production of defence equipment. This will also generate employment and encourage investment in the defence sector.

4. B.J.P. will continue to take forward the process of modernizing the Central Armed Police Forces to further increase their capacity and readiness and enable them to effectively combat internal security challenges.

5. There has been a huge change in the cultural and linguistic identity of some areas due to illegal immigration, resulting in an adverse impact on local people’s livelihood and employment. B.J.P. will expeditiously complete the National Register of Citizens process in these areas on priority. In future B.J.P. will implement the NRC in a phased manner in other parts of the country.

6. B.J.P. is committed to the enactment of the Citizenship Amendment Bill for the protection of individuals of religious minority communities from neighbouring countries escaping persecution.

7. B.J.P. reiterates its position since the time of the Jan Sangh to the abrogation of Article 370. B.J.P. is also committed to annulling Article 35A of the Constitution of India as the provision is discriminatory against non¬permanent residents and women of Jammu and Kashmir. On 5-6 August 2019, Article 370 and 35-A were abrogated from Indian Constitution.

8. B.J.P. launched Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi Yojana to ensure financial support to farmers owning land up to 2 hectares.

9. B.J.P. will launch a pension scheme for all small and marginal farmers in the country so as to ensure social security to them on reaching 60 years of age.

10. B.J.P. is committed to making an investment of? 25 lakh crore to improve the productivity of the farm sector.

11. B.J.P. will provide short-term new agriculture loans up to? 1 lakh at a 0% interest rate for 1-5 years on the condition of prompt repayment of the principal amount.

12. B.J.P. will work towards reducing all agricultural imports and institute a predictable export and import policy with a built-in mechanism for encouraging exports and discouraging imports.

13. B.J.P. will ensure timely availability of improved seeds of promising varieties at affordable rates with doorstep testing facilities.

14. B.J.P. recognizes the role Cooperatives and Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) can play in ensuring better market linkages and opportunities in the agricultural sector.

15. On the lines of Aadhaar project, B.J.P. will complete digitization of land records on a mission mode.

16. B.J.P. will launch ‘Matsya Sampada Yojana’ with an allocation of? 10,000 crores to ensure availability of storage and marketing tools and infrastructure like ice-boxes, cold storages, ice-plants etc. for small and traditional fishermen.

17. B.J.P. will ensure a pucca house to every family who are either living in a kuchha house or have no access to housing by 2022.

18. B.J.P. will launch ‘Jal Jivan Mission’ under which to introduce a special program, ‘Nal se Jal’ to ensure piped water connection to every household by 2024.

19. B.J.P. will ensure 100% disposal of liquid waste water and reuse of waste water.

20. To make India the third largest economy of the world by 2030. This implies that B.J.P. commits to make India a US$ 5 trillion economy by 2025 and US$ 10 trillion economy by 2032.

21. B.J.P.’s economic policy has been guided by the principle of lowering the tax rate and improving compliance; thereby broadening of the tax base. With improved compliance and increased tax base, the tax to GDP ratio has reached 12%, highest in the recent past, up from 10.1% in 2013-14. This increased revenue has been deployed for benefits to the poor and creation of infrastructure at an unprecedented level. We will continue with our policy in the similar manner – lowering of tax rate thereby rewarding honest tax payers and improving compliance.

22. B.J.P. will continue with the simplification of GST process by engaging in dialogue with all stakeholders.

23. B.J.P. will further continue its efforts to promote Yoga globally as the world celebrates 21st June as the International Yoga Day.

24. By 2024, B.J.P. will make capital investment of? 100 lakh crore in the infrastructure sector.

25. With the aim of developing India into a knowledge based, skill supported and technology driven society, B.J.P. has launched the ‘Make in India’ campaign. To bring in fast and inclusive growth, we have also carried out substantial reforms in the last few years in terms of de-regulation and de-licensing, with an aim to improve ease of doing business.

26. B.J.P. will continue to promote and encourage Startups through creation of a ‘Seed Startup Fund’ of? 20,000 crore.

27. B.J.P. will aim at next generation infrastructure which will include gas grids and water grids, i-ways, regional airports and wayside amenities along National highways.

28. B.J.P. has constructed over 9 crore toilets under the flagship programme, Swachh Bharat Mission. B.J.P. will take the Mission to a new level through sustainable Solid Waste Management in every village.

29. B.J.P. will ensure that all habitations attain open defecation free status and those that have attained the status sustain the behavioural change.

30. Water is a critical resource but its management is spread across various departments, even at the Central level. B.J.P. will form a new Ministry of Water unifying the water management functions to approach the issue of water management holistically and ensure better coordination of efforts.

31. B.J.P. will launch ‘Jal Jivan Mission’ under which it will introduce a special programme, ‘Nal se Jal’ to ensure piped water for every household by 2024.

32. B.J.P. will ensure sustainability of water supply through special focus on conservation of rural water bodies and ground water recharge.

33. B.J.P. will construct 60,000 kms of National Highways in the next five years.

34. B.J.P. will make all efforts to make the experience of rail journey safe, smooth, clean and satisfying to achieve great results.

35. In 2014 there were 65 functional airports and there are a total of 101 functional airports today. In the next five years, B.J.P. will double the number of functional airports.

36. B.J.P. will further work towards completing any unfinished task in regard to electrificiation.

37. Every Gram Panchayat will be connected with high speed optical fibre network by 2022.

38. While providing annual health cover of? 5 lakh to 10.74 crore poor families under the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana under
Ayushman Bharat, B.J.P. also initiated a programme to set up 1,50,000 Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs) by 2022.

39. B.J.P. is committed to the idea of simultaneous elections for Parliament, State assemblies and local bodies to reduce expenditure, ensure efficient utilisation of government resources and security forces and for effective policy planning.

40. In order to curb corruption, the Modi government has taken many effective steps and will continue to make efforts to ensure more effective governance and transparent decision making.

41. B.J.P. has ensured that the insurgency in the Northeastern States is brought under control and the security situation in these states has improved significantly.

42. B.J.P. will create new opportunities of employment by providing more support to the 22 major ‘Champion Sectors’ identified as the main drivers of Indian economy.

43. B.J.P. will take all necessary steps to increase the number of seats in Central Law, Engineering, Science and Management institutions by at least 50% in the next five years.

44. B.J.P. will formulate a ‘National Policy for Reskilling and Upskilling’ to evolve a flexible and industry-responsive workforce which is capable of accessing new opportunities and to insulate it from technological shocks.

45. The gains made under B.J.P.’s pioneering ‘Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao’ programme have been impressive. We are committed to continue to build on these gains to provide accessible and affordable quality education to all women. We will ensure that ample financial support is available to girls throughout their education and subsidised education loans are provided for higher education.

46. To generate better work opportunities for women, 10% material to be sourced for government procurement will be done from MSMEs having at least 50% women employees in their workforce.

47. Women’s welfare and development will be accorded a high priority at all levels within the government, and the B. J.P. is committed to 33% reservation for women in parliament and state assemblies through a constitutional amendment.

48. To ensure that quality education is available and easily accessible, every block with more than 50% ST population and at least 20,000 tribal persons will have an Eklavya Model Residential School.

49. B.J.P. is committed to bringing down the percentage of families living below the poverty line to a single digit in the next five years.

50. B.J.P. will ensure pucca houses for families either living in kuchha houses or without access to housing by 2022.

51. To take forward the gains achieved under Sugamya Bharat, B.J.P. will put in place a system of continuous accessibility audits and ratings for cities, public infrastructure including airports, railway stations and public transport systems, to ensure that they are fully accessible, with collaboration with industry and civil society organisations.

52. B.J.P. will expand the Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan Scheme to cover all small shopkeepers.

53. B.J.P. reiterates its stand on Ram Mandir. B.J.P. will explore all possibilities within the framework of the Constitution and all necessary efforts to facilitate the expenditious construction of the Ram Temple in Ayodhya.

54. B.J.P. is committed to ensure a clean and uninterrupted flow of river Ganga from Gangotri to Ganga Sagar.

55. B.J.P. will undertake every effort to ensure that the subjects of faith, tradition and worship rituals related to Sabarimala are presented in a comprehensive manner before the Hon’ble Supreme Court. It will endeavour to secure constitutional protection on issues related to faith and belief.

56. B.J.P. will further promote Yoga globally as the world celebrates 21st June as the International Yoga Day.

57. Article 44 of the Constitution of India lists Uniform Civil Code as one of the Directive Principles of State Policy. BJP believes that there cannot be gender equality till such time India adopts a Uniform Civil Code, which protects the rights of all women, and the BJP reiterates its stand to draft a Uniform Civil Code, drawing upon the best traditions and harmonizing them with the modern times. .

58. B.J.P. will create an. institutional mechanism to deepen the relationship of culture and heritage with people of Indian origin, and to regularly engage with them. B.J.P. will simultaneously launch ‘Bharat Gaurav’ campaign to increase interaction among the Indian diaspora and enable their continuous engagement with the Indian missions.

59. B.J.P. is committed to taking concrete steps on international forums against countries and organizations supporting terrorism, and will take all necessary measures to isolate such countries and organisations on the global stage.

60. B.J.P. will effectively pursue co-operation against global evils, such as terrorism and corruption through forums like UN, the G20, BRICS, SCO, Commonwealth, etc. Significant interactions such as Russia-India-China (RIC) and Japan-America-India (JAI) will be strengthened. To forward our ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy, B.J.P. will extensively leverage forums such as
BIMSTEC, to accelerate regional coordination and economic co-operation with countries in our neighbourhood. Act East Policy, cooperation with ASEAN and ensuring an open, inclusive, prosperous and secure Indo-Pacific will be pursued vigorously.

61. B.J.P. is committed to seeking permanent membership of the United Nations Security Council so that the body reflects the contemporary geopolitical realities of the world. It is determined to intensify its efforts towards these objectives.

Election Successes:
The Election Commission recognised the Bharatiya Janata Party as national party and its election symbol was Kamal flower (lotus). In the Lok Sabha elections of December 1984, the B.J.P. secured only two seats. In the 11 States Assembly Elections of March 1985 the party did not succeed much. In the ninth Lok Sabha elections of November, 1989 the B.J.P. secured 86 seats. The B.J.P. decided to support National Front government from outside.

In the eighth State Assembly elections in Feb, 1990, the B.J.P. secured absolute majority in Himachal and M.P. In the tenth Lok Sabha election in 1991, B.J.P. secured 119 seats and in U.P. it formed the government. In 1991 the B.J.P leader L.K Advani was recognised as leader of the opposition in the Lok Sabha. In the elections held for 11th Lok Sabha in 1996 the B.J.P. emerged as the largest party securing 161 seats. Its leader Atal Behari Vajpayee was appointed Prime Minister and he was asked to prove his majority up to 31st May, 1996 but Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee resigned on May 28,1996 because he failed to prove his majority in the Lok Sabha.

Atal Behari Vajpayee was the recognized opposition leader in the 11th Lok Sabha. In the 12th Lok Sabha elections held in Feb- March 1998, the B.J.P. secured 182 seats. The B.J.P. and its allies secured 252 seats in the 12th Lok Sabha elections. Mr. Atal Behari Vajpayee was elected as the Party leader by the newly elected B.J.P. Lok Sabha members. Mr. Atal Behari Vajpayee was appointed the Prime Minister.

In the 13th Lok Sabha elections held in Sept.-Oct. 1999, the B.J.P. secured 182 seats whereas B.J.P and its allies secured 297 seats. On 10th Oct 1999, National Democratic Alliance elected Atal Behari Vajpayee as its leader and he was appointed the Prime Minister. In the 14th Lok Sabha elections B.J.P. secured 147 seats. In the 15th Lok Sabha elections B.J.P. secured 116 seats.

In the 16th Lok Sabha elections held in 2014, B.J.P secured 282 seats (N.D.A. 334) and formed the government under the leadership of Sh. Narender Modi. In the 17th Lok Sabha election held in 2019, B.J.P. Secured 303 seats (N.D.A. 355 seats) and again formed the government under the leadership of Sh. Narendra Modi.

Question 4.
Discuss the policies and programme of the Communist Party of India.
Evaluate the policies and programme of the Communist Party of India.
Answer:
The Communist Party of India is a national political party. It was founded in 1924. Shri M.N. Roy played a vital role in its foundation.
The party progressed enormously after Independence. In 1957, this party got an opportunity to form Government in Kerala. This was the first non-Congress State

Government in India. This party had differences in 1959 and was divided into two groups. In 1962, when India had conflict with China, one group of the party supported the Indian Government whereas the other group sided with China and suggested the Indian Government to initate peaceful dialogue with China. This party was divided into two groups because of the differences between Russian and Chinese ideologies. In 1964 leftist members of the Communist Party left the Party and organised a separate party known as Marxist Party.

Programme of the C.P.I. The Communist Party in fact is a party of labourers and farmers. It aims at the elimination of capitalism through Labour movements and then to establish the control of labour class on the Government.
On the eve of general elections to the 17th Lok Sabha held in April-May 2019 the CPI released the Election Manifesto. The party will strive to build the third front in defence of secularism, democracy, federal polity, development with social justice, and other issues affecting the country.
1. Political Programme:
(i) The C.P.I. attaches the utmost priority to safeguarding the integrity, security and sovereignty of India.

(ii) The C.P.I. favours the preservation and strengthening of the secular democratic set up of the country in the struggle against all types of divisive forces.

(iii) The manifesto calls for 10 per cent job reservation for the economically weaker sections of forward castes in addition to the implementation of the Mandal Commission report.

(iv) The Party is for the speedy implementation of comprehensive measures for social justice.

(v) The Party has demanded restructuring of Centre-State relations in the true spirit of federalism. The states should be given more powers as recommended by the Sarkaria Commission.

(vi) The Party called for the abrogation of Article 356 of the Constitution, and enlarging democratic and civil rights of the people.

(vii) The fate of state government is to be decided on the floor of the house.

(viii) The Party has demanded real decentralisation to be carried out by conferring more powers and financal resources to elected bodies at district, block and Panchayat levels.

(ix) The Party favours effective steps for the elimination of corruption. Lok Pal Bill, which included within its scope legislators and also the Prime Minister, should be adopted. Transfers and postings which are a fertile source of corruption should be done by a committee of senior officials.

(x) All legislators, MPs, MLAs, ministers and high officials must disclose their assets and place them before parliament and assemblies.

2. Economic Programme:
The Economic Programme of the Communist Party of India is as below:
(i) The Indian economy needs reforms for ending bureaucratic control and cutting red tape, but not by introducing liberalisation, globalisation and privatisation. The public sector has to be defended from the wholesale attack of privatisation. Cure for the ills of the public sector enterprises should be sought within the public sector itself and not by automatically privatising them.

(ii) The party wanted an integrated plan for rural development with 50 per cent of budget allocation, radical agrarian reforms, correction of land records and ban on evictions.

(iii) Popular Committees should be formed to bring about land reforms. It suggests that the Land Ceiling Act and Land Reforms Act should be implemented.

(iv) The party has demanded the nationalisation of Textile Industry, Sugar and Jute Mills and Bank-business.

(v) It has demanded to strenghten the Public Distribution System to control the rising prices and regularise the supply of essential goods.

(vi) The wholesale grain business should be nationalised and the Bank facilities should not be provided to hoarders.

(vii) The party demands that quick industrial and employment opportunities should be provided to strengthen economy.

(viii) The election-manifesto stresses that the privileges given to big industrial houses should be withdrawn and industries in the backward regions should be developed.

(ix) Democratic progress in the public sector should be encouraged and the labourers should be given shares in it.

(x) Need-based minimum wage for low-paid factory workers.

3. Social Programmes:
(i) Right to Work:
The party wanted the right to work to be included as a fundamental right in the Constitution and an unemployment allowance for the jobless. Employment guarantee schemes should be for a minimum of 200 days in a year at national minimum wage.

(ii) For Jawans And Ex-Servicemen:
The legitimate demands of army Jawans in regard to their working conditions and also just demands of ex-servicemen should be settled through negotiations.

(iii) Housing and Medical Aid for the People:
The party is for People’s Housing Policy by giving housing the status of a basic right. The party is also for an extensive free health programme, increasing the budget allocations for health and radically improving the health services in all districts.

(iv) Language Policy:
All languages shall be encouraged to develop as modern languages, and due recognition be given to the rights of Urdu and Sindhi under article 345 or 347 of the Constitution.

(v) Women’s Rights:
Equal rights should be given to men and women and the laws barring women of their rights should be negated. Women should be given same wages for same work as given to their male counterparts. Vital programmes for family welfare should be planned to ensure the welfare of mothers and children. Special vocational training programme for women should be started. The party is committed to reservation of women in panchayats and other local bodies.

(vi) Family Planning:
The Communist Party of India has demanded that the Family Planning Programme shouldn’t be implemented forcibly.

(vii) Education Policy:
The party has demanded implementation of compulsory primary education, mid-day meals for children in primary schools; free education upto the secondary stage; stipends and hostel facilities for students from low income groups and for girls, time bound programme of abolition of illiteracy and providing adequate funds to fulfil this aim.

(viii) Rights of the Minorities:
The administration should take such steps which can safeguard the interests of Muslims, other minority groups and backward classes. The party favours giving priority to the genuine grievances of the minority community regarding discrimination in the matters of jobs and other economic spheres.

(ix) Ram Temple:
All cases related with Ram Temple-Babri Masjid dispute shall be referred to the Supreme Court and its decision shall be binding.

4. Foreign Policy:
The election manifesto states that the Indian Policy against imperialism should be strengthened. The policy of non-alignment should be vigorously adhered to. The party will improve relations with Bangala Desh, Pakistan and other SAARC countries and Russia and China. The party will also ensure that all nuclear weapons are removed from the US military base in Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean.

Economic ties with China and Russia will be strengthened. India is to remain firm in her principled refusal to sign the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty. Positive and active role is to be played for developing south co-operation among all developing countries, and extending co-operation among the SAARC countries.

Election Successes:
In the first general elections in 1952, this party won 26 seats out of 489 in Lok Sabha. In the second general elections in 1957, the party got 29 seats out of 494 seats in Lok Sabha. The Party was divided at the time of general elections in 1967 and so it secured only nineteen seats.
In 1971 the party won 20 seats out of 518 seats in Lok Sabha. The party faced a crushing defeat in State Assembly elections in June 1977.

After the Kerala Assembly elections in March, 1977, the party made a coalition government. The Communist Party of India won 11 seats in Lok Sabha elections in 1980 wheares it got 54 seats in the nine State Assembly elections in May, 1980. The party secured only 8 seats in Lok Sabha elections of December 1984. In the ninth Lok Sabha elections of 1989 C.P.I. secured 12 seats wheares in the tenth Lok Sabha elections of 1991 it secured 13 seats.

C.P.I. secured 11 seats in the elections of 11th Lok Sabha held in 1996. C.P.I secured only 9 seats in the 12th Lok Sabha elections held in 1998. In the 13th Lok Sabha elections held in 1999, C.P.I. secured only 4 seats. In the 14th Lok Sabha elections C.P.I. secured 10 seats. In the 15th Lok Sabha elections C.P.I. secured 4 seats. The influence of the party is confined to the seats of Kerala, West Bengal and Tripura. In the 16th Lok Sabha elections held in 2014, C.P.I. secured only one seat. In the 17th Lok Sabha elections held in 2019, C.P.I. Secured only 2 seats.

Question 5.
Write an essay on the Communist Party of India (Marxist).
Or
Discuss the Policies and Programme of Communist Party of India (Marxist).
Answer:
The Communist Party of India was divided into two groups on the issue of Indo-China relations in 1952. These differences became all the sharper when China attacked India in 1962. One group of party called the Chinese attack an invasion and promised to support the Indian Government to face it vigorously, whereas the other group which was under the influence of China, called it a territorial dispute. Consequently, the leftist members having one-third majority separated from the Communist Party in 1964 and founded the Marxist Communist Party.

Soon thereafter, this party was again divided in 1967-68. Some members of the Marxist Communist Party expressed their viewpoint that socialism should not be established through peaceful means, rather they should resort to the means of peasant revolt as it occurred in China. In March, 1967 the peasant revolt took place in Naxal Bari and Khari-Bari towns in Darjeeling and they forcibly possessed the non-government lands and robbed things everywhere. These rebels were called Naxalites. The Marxist Communist Party expelled such members from the party, but naxalite activities increased. These members formed their separate party which is called Marxist Leninist Communist Party (C.P.I.M.L.), but this group didn’t get much support and it harmed Marxist Communist Party also.

Aims:
According to Article II of the party, the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the revolutionary vanguard of the working class of India. Its aim is socialism and communism through the establishment of the state of dictatorship of the proletariat. In all its activities the party is guided by the philosophy and principles of Marxism- Leninism which shows to the toiling masses the correct way to the ending of exploitation of men, their complete emancipation. The party keeps high the banner of proletarian internationalism.

Policies and Programmes of the Marxist Party:
At the time of 17th Lok Sabha elections CPI (M) released the manifesto of the party, The Marxist Party put forward the following programme before the people:
1. Political Programme:
(i) The CPI (M) is to strengthen secular foundation of democracy. The party advocates legislation for separation of religion and politics in light of the Supreme Court’s judgement in the Bommai case. The Party favours effective prohibition of the use of religious issues for electoral purposes.

(ii) The CPM favours the restructuring of centre-state relations with more powers to the states for legislative measures to ensure balanced economic development to overcome regional imbalances.

(iii) The CPM promises devolution of finances to the states ending over-centralisation of resources at the centre.

(iv) The CPM favours the protection of the Rajya Sabha as the ‘Council of States’ to defend the federal structure of our Constitution; its members must belong to the states they are elected from.

(v) The CPM is committed for decentralisation of democracy to the grass-roots; proper devolution of power to the Panchayats; strengthen Panchayati Raj institutions; financial assistance to Panchayats to flow through state governments.

(vi) The party advocates maximum autonomy for the state of Jammu & Kashmir by revising article 370 of the Constitution. Regional autonomy is to be provided to Jammu and Ladakh regions within the state framework.

(vii) The party favours negotiation with all those groups in the North-East who are advocating separatism while firmly defending the integrity of the Indian Union.

(viii) The party advocates special provision for the development of the North-Eastern region.

(ix) National Security. The CPI (M) stands for halting nuclear weaponisation; revert to nuclear policy of developing India’s independent technological potential while not signing any international treaty which is discriminatory. The party is not in favour of signing CTBT. The party advocates cancellation of the Indo-US military cooperation agreement which links up India with the US global strategy. The party favours removal of nuclear weapons from the US military base in Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean.

(x) Electoral Reforms.

• Amendment of the Representation of People’s Act to plug loopholes in enforcing ceiling on election expenditure.
• Proportional representation with partial list system.
• Effective steps to prohibit persons with criminal background from contesting elections.
• State funding in the form of material for recognised political parties.
• Amendment of the Anti-Defection Law.

(xi) Corruption. To check corruption, the CPM wants the immediate setting up of Lok Pal bringing in its purview the Prime Minister.

(xii) Judicial Reforms. The CPM favours reforms in judicial system to provide easy and speedy relief to the common people.

(xiii) The party is for the defence of national unity against secessionism, communal and divisive forces by mobilising the people and vigilance against imperialist agencies’ attempt at destabilisation.

2. Economic Programme:
(i) Land Reforms:
The party favours vigorous implementation of land reforms; distribution of land to the tiller; breaking of land concentration; correction of land records, security for tenants and issuance of joint pattas for women.

(ii) Agriculture:
Prohibit sale of agricultural lands to foreign companies; increase public investment in agriculture; ensure self-sufficiency in foodgrains production; cancellation of the debts of agricultural workers and poor peasants; remunerative prices for peasants’ produce; cheap credit and subsidised inputs for peasants.

(iii) Economic Sovereignty:
Safeguard the country’s economic sovereignty and Strengthen its self-reliance; reverse the policies of unbridled liberalisation which undermine its sovereignty.

(iv) Industries:
Stop privatisation of public sector; revise telecom, power policies, stop privatisation of financial sector, streamline public sector enterprises, provide them autonomy from bureaucratic controls and ensure workers’ participation in management.

(v) Price and Public Distribution System:
Curb price rise and ensure food security by expanding the public distribution system bringing into its ambit 14 essential commodities and reduce prices by 50 per cent; reduce issue price of foodgrains.

(vi) Reverse the present industrial policy;new policy to strengthen indigenous industry and domestic capacities; end of preferential treatment to foreign investors; entry of foreign capital to be decided on national priorities and technological needs.

(vii) Private sector to be encouraged to invest in new productive areas, R & D and the service sector like tourism.

(viii) Encouragement to small scale industries with adequate incentives and sufficient credit from bank.

(ix) Protection of traditional industries such as handloom, coir etc.

(x) Minimum fair wage for industrial and agricultural workers and middle class employees with dearness allowance to neutralise the rise in the cost of living and bonus as deferred wage. Full trade union rights to central and state government employees.

(xi) Employment or unemployment allowance for the unemployed in the urban and rural areas.

(xii) The CPM favours recognition of Trade Unions through secret ballot.

(xiii) The CPM wants granting of pension to working people as a third benefit, one-rank-one pension for ex-servicemen; upgrading pensions of all categories of pensioners in consonance with the cost of living.

(xiv) The CPM promises the protection of the rights of handicapped employees.

(xv) The CPM will provide yarn at control rate for weavers and provide adequate infrastructure for the marketing of their goods.

(xvi) The CPM favours greater plan allocation for spread of irrigation; proper schemes for crop insurance.

(xvii) The CPM is committed to central legislation protecting the rights of agricultural workers, their wages, living conditions and social benefits.

(xviii) Expansion of credit facilities for the poor peasantry and agricultural labour.

(xix) No licences for deep sea fishing to foreign companies and joint ventures to protect right of fishing people.

(xx) The CPM guarantees right to work as a fundamental right.

3. Social Programme:
(i) Education
(i) Introduction of compulsory primary education accompanied by free mid day meals, provision of text books and other education materials.
(ii) Free and universal education to be guaranteed for all children upto the age of 14 years. Constitutional Amendment to make education a basic right for children upto the age of 14.
(iii) Rapid expansion of primary school network.
(iv) Upgradation of the salaries of elementary school teachers.
(v) Support to mass literacy programmes.
(vi) Democratisation of the higher education system and development of vocational education.
(vii) The allocation must be atleast 10 per cent of the national budget and 30 per cent of the state budgets.

(ii) Health:
The CPI (M) advocates:
(i) Increasing the expenditure on public health upto 5 per cent of the G.D.P.
(ii) Provision of adequate network of primary health centres with sufficient stocks of medicines.
(iii) Ensuring supply of essential drugs at prices affordable to the common people.

(iii) Water Sources: The party advocates control on indiscriminate use of ground water. The party favours provision of potable drinking water to all villages as a priority task.

(iv) Employment:

• Guarantee right to work as a fundamental right.
• Provide food-for-work programme to generate employment.
• Ensure adequate credit for self-employment scheme for educated unemployed.
• Scrap freeze in recruitment in the government sector.

(v) Pensions: Grant of pension to working people as a third benefit; one rank one pension for ex-servicemen.

(vi) Social Justice for Dalits and Adivasis.

• Vigorous action against those who indulge in atrocities against the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, other backward communities.
• Ensuring that quotas of reservation for Scheduled castes and tribes be filled up.
• OBC reservation to be implemented.
• Reservation to be extended to Dalit ChristiAnswer:
• The CPM favours reforms in judicial system to provide easy and speedy relief to the common people.

(vii) Women:
The status of women will be improved and they will be given equal property and other rights. To expand employment opportunities and equal legal rights for women of all communities. Registration of marriages to be made compulsory. One-third of the seats in legislatures and parliament will be reserved for women. Equal pay for equal work will be given.

(viii) Housing:
Housing will be accorded the status of a basic right for all citizens. Housing schemes for the urban and rural poor will be given top priority.

(ix) Ayodhya Dispute: The Ayodhya dispute is to be referred to the Supreme Court for a speedy judicial verdict.

(x) Rights of Minorities: Muslim and other religious minorities are to be protected against Hindu revivalism and Chauvinism.

4. Foreign Policy:
Strengthen the foreign policy of non-alignment and vigorous support for world peace and fight against the danger of nuclear war. The party is committed to support the people of neighbouring nations fighting for democratic rights. The party is for the improvement of relations with our neighbours. The party favours firm resistance against US imperialist attempts to impose its New World Order.

The party will ensure that all nuclear weapons are removed from the US military base in Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean. The party will improve relations with Bangla Desh, Pakistan and other SAARC countries and Russia and China. Economic ties with China and Russia will be strengthened.

Election Successes. In the general elections of 1967 the Marxist Party secured 19 seats in the Lok Sabha. In Kerala E.M.S. Namboodripad led the coalition of leftist parties. In 1971 elections of Lok Sabha the Marxist Party secured 25 seats out of 518 seats. In 1980 elections of Lok Sabha it secured 35 seats. In the Dec. 1984 elections of Lok Sabha the CPI (M) won 22 seats. In the Ninth Lok Sabha election in November, 1989 the CPI (M) secured 33 seats whereas in the Tenth Lok Sabha elections it secured 35 seats.

CPI (M) secured 33 seats in the 11th Lok Sabha elections, 32 seats in the 12th Lok Sabha elections and 33 seats in the 13th Lok Sabha elections in 1999. In the 14th Lok Sabha elections CPI (M) secured 43 seats. In the 15th Lok Sabha election C.P.M. secured 16 seats. In the 16th Lok Sabha election held in 2014, (CPI) (M) secured only 9 seats. West Bengal and Kerala are the strongholds of the party. In the 17th Lok Sabha elections held in 2017 C.P.I. (M) secured only 3 seats.

Question 6.
Discuss the main problems of the political parties in India.
Or
Discuss the problems faced by Party System in India.
Answer:
The political parties in India face problems. The three major problems of political parties in India are:
1. Organisational Problem.
2. Defections.
3. Problem of Finance.

1. Organisational problem:
The first major problem of political parties in India is organisational problem. Almost all national parties have a well- knit and disciplined organisation right from the local to the national level. Even the regional political parties like the A.D.M.K. and the Shiromani Akali Dal also have well-knit organisation. The political parties with specific ideology are more organised than parties without ideology. Access to governmental power and authority helps a party to organise its ranks in an effective manner.

Almost all political parties are facing the problems of factionalism and dissidence. The Congress Party has witnessed two major splits in three decades. In 1969 the Congress Party split took place and Congress was divided into Congress (O) and Congress (R). The Congress (R) maintained its organisational strength until the Janata Party unseated it from power in 1977 elections. On 1st January, 1978, split in Congress (R) took place and Congress (I) was established.

There are three Communist parties the C.P.I., the C.P.I. (M) and the C.P.I. (M.L.) which arose out of factional politics in the Communist Party of India. Factionalism was the most marked feature of the Janata Party’s functioning. The Party’s organisational weakness was compounded by personal ‘funds’ among its top three leaders (Morarji Desai, Charan Singh and Jagjivan Ram) and the ‘extra Constitutional RSS connection’ which the Jana Sangh component was not willing to discard. In July 1979, Chaudhary Charan Singh delivered the first major blow to the party when he walked out along with his followers and revived the Lok Dal. In April, 1980 the former Jana Sangh elements, along with a few others, broke away from the Janata Party and formed a new party, the Bharatiya Janata Party.

Regional Parties like D.M.K., Shiromani Akali Dal and National Conference are also not free from factionalism. The D.M.K. split led to the formation of A.D.M.K. In May 1984, split in the National Conference took place. Akali Dal was split into two factions in 1962. In August 1980, Akali Dal was divided into Akali Dal (Longowal) and Akali Dal (Talwandi). In June 1985, United Akali Dal was formed under the chairmanship of Mr. Joginder Singh. In January 1995, there were two main Akali Dais—Shiromani Akali Dal (Amritsar) and Akali Dal (Badal), and efforts were made to unite both the Akali Dais. Thus all political parties face the problem of factionalism.

2. Problem of Defections:
Defection is another major problem of Indian political parties. There are many examples of defections from the first to fourth general elections but the number of defections after the fourth general elections increased so much that Parliamentary form of government seemed to be an utter failure in India. Prime Minister Shri Morarji Desai had to resign in July 1979 as many members left the Janata Party.
Defections took place abundantly before and after the Lok Sabha elections in 1980 and they were all in favour of the Congress (I). In January 1980, Haryana Chief Minister Shri Bhajan Lai joined the Congress (I) by leaving the Janata Party along with 35 members. The Himachal Chief Minister, Shri Shanta Kumar, had to resign in February 1980 because of heavy defections.

Greater civic awareness against defections should be inculcated through mass media in order to provide a check on the practice of defections. In January 1985 defection was banned by 52nd Amendment. 91st amendment was also passed for this purpose. But the problem of defection still exists.

3. Problem of Finance:
Another major problem of political parties is the problem of finance. The political parties receive a substantial amount by way of membership fees. A common source of income for almost all the political parties is the levy on members of Parliament and of State Assemblies. At the time of election the persons who apply for party tickets also pay some fees along with the applications. Moreover, the candidates contribute substantially towards the party election fund.

But sometimes the parties completely underwrite the candidate’s entire election expenses. Donations, purses and fund drives have also been the main sources of income for practically all the political parties. Income is also got from purses presented to party leaders. Ruling party has no problem of finances whereas opposition parties are generally faced with financial problems.

Question 7.
Evaluate the policies, programmes and performance of Akali Dal in India.
Or
Make a critical evaluation of the policies, programmes and performance of Shiromani Akali Dal.
Answer:
Shiromani Akali Dal is a regional or provincial party and holds a prominent place in Punjab politics. Akali Dal is the oldest political party of the Punjab and the second oldest party in India. Akali Dal came into being in 1920 due to the efforts of Master Tara Singh and Baba Kharak singh. In fact the party was established with religious motives rather than with political aims. It aimed at maintaining the sanctity of Gurudwaras. Shiromani Akali Dal also enjoys some influence in Chandigarh, Haryana, Delhi, and Rajasthan. But it has stronghold in Punjab as it is the only organisation which represents the Sikhs.

Policies and Programmes of Shiromani Akali Dal
The Assembly elections which took place in Punjab in February 2017, Shiromani Akali Dal had declared its ‘election manifesto’. The main/key features of this manifesto are as follows:

1. For every 100 kms range, a new airport shall be made/built.
2. The party had declared in its manifesto that all the lanes and highways of Punjab shall have CCTV cameras installed.
3. The declaration of the manifesto stated that all businessmen whose turnover is upto 2 crores need not maintain books.
4. The party will be creating 20 lakh new job opportunities in the next 5 years.
5. The limit of the free electricity from existing 8 hours to 10 hours will be increased.
6. According to the manifesto, the toppers of the XII standard of govt, schools will have opportunity of availing free education in foreign countries.
7. All towns/cities in Punjab shall have sports schools opened.
8. The girls of the XII standard will be given sewing machines.
9. The manifesto stated that within two months after the formation of their govt, all families below the poverty line will be given gas connections and gas stoves.
10. According to the manifesto, all express projects shall be completed within a year.
11. All cities/towns shall have wi-fi facility.
12. For the safety of 12,000 villages in Punjab, CCTV cameras shall be installed.
13. Shiromani Akali Dal had promised in its manifesto that new IT hubs will be opened in Amritsar and Mohali.
14. Malva zone will be transformed into a textile belt.
15. According to the manifesto, every lane of the village in Punjab shall have solar lights installed.
16. The manifesto stated that the link roads’ breadth shall be increased upto 18 feet.
17. Shiromani Akali Dal had promised that every constituency in Punjab shall have a government byre made (goshala).
18. According to the manifesto, 2500 skill development centres shall be opened. For every 5 villages one such centre shall be opened. The youth trainees of these centres shall be given a loan of 10 lakh rupees.
19. According to the mainfesto, the blue card holders will be given pure ghee @ Rs. 25 per kg and sugar @ Rs. 10 per kg.
20. Free electricity will be given to people below the poverty line.
21. The manifesto stated that amount of old age pension and widow pension will be increased to Rs. 2000/- p.m. from Rs. 500/- p.m.
22. The Shiromani Akali Dal had promised that the grant given in Shagun Yojana will be increased upto Rs. 51,000/- from Rs. 15,000/-
23. According to the manifesto of the party, the scheme amount of the Bhagat
    Puran Scheme Medical Insurance will be increased from Rs. 50,000/- to Rs. 1 lakh.
24. The party manifesto said that in the next 5 years for providing the housing facility for 5 lakh people, Rs. 2,000 crore will be assigned.
25. According to the party manifesto, farmers will be given Rs. 100/- minimum as bonus and support price.
26. The party had promised the farmers an interest free loan of Rs. 2 lakhs annually.
27. Poor farmers will be provided one time debt redemption.
28. Compensation will be given in case of occurrence of any natural calamity/disaster.
29. New pucca houses will be given to 5 lakh persons who are living in kuccha houses.
30. In the next 5 years, 50,000 youths will be given taxis without any down payment.
31. According to the party manifesto, the amount of scholarship under Dr. Hargobind Singh Khurana, will be increased from Rs. 30,000/- to Rs. 50,0001/-.
32. The manifesto includes one stop shops with daily consumer needs like atta, dal, medicines at lower prices.

Election Successes:
In 1967, a coalition government under the leadership of Akali leader Justice Gurnam Singh was formed in Punjab. In the Punjab assembly election in June 1977, the Akali Dal got 58 seats and formed a coalition government with Janata Party under the leadership of Sardar Parkash Singh Badal. In the Punjab assembly election in September 1985, the Akali Dal got 73 seats and it formed the government under the leadership of S. Surjit Singh Barnala.

In the Punjab assembly election in Feb. 1997, the Akali Dal secured 76 seats and it made a coalition government with the B.J.P. under the leadership of Sardar Parkash Singh Badal. In the 12th Lok Sabha election held in Feb. March 1998 the Akali Dal secured 8 seats and even Janata Dal candidate Prime Minister I.K. Gujral won the Jalandhar seat with the support of Akali Dal. Akali Dal’s ally B.J.P. secured 2 seats. In the 13th Lok Sabha election held in 1999 Akali Dal (B) secured only two seats.

In 14th Lok Sabha elections held in 2004 the party won 8 seats. In 15th Lok Sabha election held in 2009 Akali Dal secured 4 seats. In 2012 Akali Dal secured absolute majority in the Punjab Legislative Assembly election with the support of BJP. Therefore, Akali Dal formed the Govt, under the leadership of Sardar Prakash Singh Badal. In the 16th Lok Sabha election held in 2014, the party won 4 seats.
In Punjab Assembly elections held in Feb 2017, Shiromani Akali Dal secured only 15 seats.

Question 8.
Discuss the policies and programmes of Aam Aadmi Party (AAP).
Answer:
The Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) was born in the context to Movement against corruption. This movement was started in 2008 by the great social worker Shri Anna Hazare which continued till 2012. Along with Shri Anna Hazare the other members of this movement were Shri Arvind Kejriwal, Shri Prashant Bhushan, Sh. Yogendra Yadav, Sh. Sanjay Singh, Sh. Kumar Vishwas, Mrs. Kiran Bedi and Sh. Kapil Mishra.

The main aim of the movement was to abolished the corruption which was existing at a high level and to create a strong law known as Jan Lokpal. Under the leadership of Anna Hazare, this movement achieved huge popularity and success. Even after the movement Arvind Kejriwal along with few others formed a political group to fight further against corruption. Anna Hazare was not in favour of a political party formation but Arvind Kejriwal, Prashant Bhushan, Sanjay Singh, Kumar Vishwas, Kapil Mishra decided to form a political party.

Since Anna Hazare did not support in formation of such political party he was not a part of this. Therefore, a political party was formed. This party was launched on 26th November, 2012. It was recognized at a state level by the Election Commission of India. The party a majority influenced in Delhi and Punjab. The party’s election symbol is a ‘broom’. In February, 2015 Delhi’s Legislative Assembly elections AAP got a historic win and Arvind Kejriwal become the Chief Minister.

In the mean time two founders Prashant Bhushan and Yogendra YadaV left AAP due to differences in governance operations among them. After some time even Kapil Mishra left the party. Again in February 2020 Delhi Legislative Assembly elections, AAP got a historic win and again Arvind Kejriwal “became the Chief Minister of Delhi.

Policies and Programmes of Aam Aadmi Party (AAP):
AAP Party declared its Election Manifesto during 2017, Punjab Assembly election: Following are the policies and programmes of AAP Party.
1. AAP will launch a massive drive to set the state as a pre-eminent destination for setting business and industry. The anti-corruption enforcement wings of Punjab will be given powers to make it a corruption free state.

2. Punjab Overseas Employment Corporation will be set up to promote employment of youth overseas. Foreign Employment Youth Board shall be created to train youth for foreign jobs. Punjab Launch pools will be set up to help the youth become entreprenuers.

3. Traditional forms of medicine practitioners will be registered as health workers. Reformation of nursing homes for independent a powerful health care system to rehabilitate patients good health implementation of ‘Nursing Act’, opening of ‘Pendu Sehat Clinics’ in villages with an aim of ‘Free Health for AH’.

4. Employment and entreprenuership opportunities for both rural and urban areas. Private and public health care services will be created to ease access to free medicine and check-ups for its citizens.

5. ₹5 lakhs health insurance will be provided to all Punjabis.

6. Old age, handicapped and widow pensions will be increased from ₹500 to ₹2500.

7. “Aam Aadmi Canteen” will provide ₹5 meals in all districts and sub-divisional towns.

8. The state shall be made drug-free within a month of govt, formation. Drug victims will be rehabilitated within six months of govt, formation. Politicians involved in drug trade will be jailed and their properties will be confiscated.

9. ₹5 lakh cashless health insurance scheme for treatment in private hospitals.

10. 25 lakh employment opportunities will be created.

11. Involvement in religious desecraters shall be given exemplary punishment.

12. Opening of “Mata Gujri training” academy for girls.

13. Creation of free Wi-Fi hotspots in all villages, cities and government colleges.

14. By December 2018 all farmers shall become debt-free.

15. Abolishment of application fee applying for government jobs.

16. ‘Kanshi Ram Youth Skill University’ will be set up in Doaba Region, with regional campuses in Malwa and Majha.

17. No direct relatives of MP, MLA Minister will be eligible for government contracts.

18. Existing Theka’ system under the control of politicians and cortels will be dismantled.

Achievements of Aam Aadmi Party (AAP):
Election Success:
In Delhi Assembly election, held in Nov-Dec, 2013, party wins 28, and formed the government under the leadership of Sh. Arvind Kejriwal with the support of Congress Party. But only after 49 days, he regins from his post.

• In the 16th Lok Sabha election held in April-May, 2014 party wins 4 seats.
• In Delhi Assembly, election held in Feb, 2015 Party win historic 67 seats and formed the government under the leadership of Sh. Arvind Kejriwal.
• In Punjab Assembly, election held in Feb, 2017 party win 20 seats.
• In 17th Lok Sabha election held in April-May 2019, party win only one seat.
• In Delhi Assembly election held in Feb, 2020, party again win historic 62 seats and formed the government under the leadership of Sh. Arvind Kejriwal.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is called National Political Party?
Answer:
1. A Political Party is recognised as All India Party if it secures at least 6 per cent of the valid votes polled in any four or more states, at a general election to the Lok Sabha or to the State Assembly and in addition if it also wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha from any State or States.
Or
2. A political party is recognised as All India Party if it wins at least 2 percent seats in the Lok Sabha (11 Seats in the existing House having 543 members) and these members are elected from at least three different states.
Or
3. A political party is recognised as national party if a party is recognised as state party in a minimum of four states.

Question 2.
When did Indian National Congress Party come in existence?
Answer:
Indian National Congress was formed in 1885. Indian National Congress was established under the guidance and direction of A.O. Hume. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held at Bombay which was presided over by W.C. Bannerji while A.O. Hume acted as its secretary.

Question 3.
Discuss any four features of Indian Party System.
Or
Write down any three characteristics of Political Party System in India.
Answer:
1. Multiple Party SystemIndia has a Multiple Party System. Election Commission has recognised eight national and 53 state parties. Seven National Parties are : Indian National Congress, Bharatiya Janata Party, C.P.I., CPI (M), Nationalist Congress Party, Trinmool Congress Party, Bahujan Samaj Party and National Peoples party.

2. Communal Parties-An important feature of Indian party system is the existence of communal parties.

3. Factionalism-Factionalism and groupings are present in most of the political parties.

4. Lack of discipline among the party members is an important feature of the Indian Party System.

Question 4.
What type of Party System is in India?
Answer:
There is multi-party system in India. But India’s multi-party system differs from the multiple party system of western countries. Congress Party dominated at the centre as well as in states before 1967. It was only in 1977 that the monopoly of the Congress Party ended for a short period and Non-Congress government was formed at the centre for the first time. But after 1989 Congress Party has not been dominating either at the centre or at the state level. The Election Commission has recognised eight National Parties and 53 state level parties.

Question 5.
Write a short note on the political programme of the Congress.
Answer:

• The highest priority for the Congress is to fulfil its pledge of giving power to the people.
• The Congress will resume the struggle against terrorism, secessionism, and fanaticism.
• The Congress will restore law and order, re-establish peace and rebuild democratic process in Punjab.
• Freedom of Information is a precious right. The Congress will make a law on this behalf.

Question 6.
Write four points of political programme of the Bharatiya Janata Party.
Or
Write four important policies of the Bhartiya Janta Party.
Answer:
1. The B.J.P. has pledged to defend the unity and integrity of India. It believes that all Indians irrespective of their language, caste or creed, are one people.

2. The B.J.P. is committed to remove all sorts of corruption. The B.J.P. will make it obligatory on elected representative to make public his entire income and wealth within 90 days of election. The B.J.P. will appoint a Lok Pal to entertain complaints of corruption against anybody holding public office, including the Prime Minister.

3. The B.J.P. favours restructuring of centre-state relations in view of the quick economic development and decentralization.

4. The B.J.P. is pledged to defend the unity and integrity of India.

Question 7.
What is the policy of the B.J.P. (Bharatiya Janta Party) towards ending corruption?
Or
What is the policy of the Bhartiya Janta Party to abolish corruption?
Answer:
The B.J.P. holds that roots of all corruption lie in political and electoral corruption. The party is committed to remove all sorts of corruption. The party promises to appoint a Lok Pal to inquire into allegations of corruption against anybody holding public office including the Prime Minister.

Question 8.
Mention Foreign Policy of the B.J.P.
Answer:
The B.J.P’s foreign policy will be guided by the following agenda :
1. Sovereign equality amongst nations.

2. Promotion of Asian solidarity ; development of South Asian Regional Cooperation and emphasis on improved relations with neighbouring countries.

3. The BJP will launch a vigorous campaign for a permanent membership for India in the U.N. Security Council.

4. The BJP believes in improving relations with all neighbouring states. The BJP pledges to maintain friendly relations with Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka etc. India’s relations with the USA will be based on mutual respect and the BJP will endeavour to maintain friendly relations with Russia.

Question 9.
Write about the Economic policy of Marxist Communist Party.
Answer:

1. The party favours vigorous implementation of land reforms ; distribution of land to the tiller ; cancellation of the debts of agricultural workers and poor peasants etc.
2. The party favours that full trade union rights be given to central and state govt, employees.
3. The cotton textile and jute industry should be nationalised. Powerloom and handloom workers will be afforded relief and workers will be allowed to participate on an equal footing with management.
4. The CPM favours recognition of trade unions through secret ballot.

Question 10.
Write down Economic Policy of Communist Party of India.
Or
Mention four policies of Communist Party of India.
Answer:

1. Party promises to keep fifty per cent of the budget for development of agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry and so forth.
2. The party will prevent the dilution of government equity in banks, privatization of insurance sector and transfer of pension and PF funds into speculative markets.
3. A rational land and water management shall be undertaken through a national water policy which safeguards agriculture from droughts and floods and helps to solve inter-state disputes on water sharing.
4. The party guaranteed remunerative prices for peasants’ produce and comprehensive crop insurance scheme.

Question 11.
Write about the economic policies and programmes of Indian National Congress.
Answer:
The Congress promises speedy removal of poverty and development of agriculture and industry on scientific lines.

1. Cheap Food: The Congress has promised to provide all families below the poverty line, rice or wheat every month.

2. Employment: Employment is the major concern of government policy. The Congress is committed to achieve the target of full employment.

3. Agriculture: The party promises implementation of a policy that would add value to agricultural produce and that would create new markets for farm output. The emphasis would be more on the food processing and agro-based industries.

4. The party promises to accelerate economic growth and new investment and make India truly self-reliant.

Question 12.
Explain the role of Opposition Parties in democracy.
Answer:
1. Opposition parties act as a check on the anti-people policies of the government. One of the most important functions of the opposition parties is to criticise the wrong policies of the government.

2. The opposition parties point out the drawbacks in the laws, policies, plans, programmes of the government and the implementation thereof, so as to caution the people against the impending dangers.

3. The opposition parties give political education to the people.

4. The opposition parties criticise the Government in the House just to unmask the government before the nation and tries to win the public opinion for the next election by exposing the lapses and lacunae in the Govt, policies.

Question 13.
Write a short note on Economic Policy of the Bharatiya Janata Party.
Answer:
1. The B. J.P. will make our economy truly Swadeshi by promoting native initiatives. It will be an economy of the people, by the people and for the people.

2. The B.J.P. will liberate the economy from the clutches of the bureaucratic controls.

3. The B.J.P. is committed to an economy that enables India to achieve its destiny in the forefront of the nations of the world. Foreign investment will be required and encouraged for world class technology. However, the BJP will strive to minimise India’s dependence on foreign savings.

4. The party promises to raise the income tax exemption.

Question 14.
Explain briefly political policies and programmes of Shiromani Akali Dal.
Answer:
1. Shiromani Akali Dal promises that true federalism as contained in the Anandpur Sahib Resolution alone can broaden and deepen the bonds of Unity and Integrity of the great Indian nation. The states ought to enjoy genuine autonomy – political, legislative, fiscal and administrative within the federal framework. Strengthening of states will strengthen the union.

2. Shiromani Akali Dal believes in the concept of peace and prosperity with honour and dignity.

3. Philosophy of Shiromani Akali Dal is based on eternal democratic, humane and egalitarian principles of “Kirt Karo, Nam Japo and Wand Chhako”.

4. Shiromani Akali Dal believes in the concept of peace and prosperity with honour and dignity.

Question 15.
Write any four weaknesses of Indian Party System.
Answer:
1. The first major problem of political parties in India is organisational problem. Almost all the political parties are facing the problems of factionalism and dissidence.

2. Defection is another major problem of Indian political parties. There are many examples of defections from first to fourth general elections but the number of defections after the fourth general elections increased so much that Parliamentary form of government seemed to be an utter failure.

3. Another major defect of the Indian party system is the existence of communal parties.

4. Another major problem of political parties is the problem of finance.

Question 16.
By whom, when and why Bahujan Samaj Party was formed in India?
Or
Who established Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)? Write down any three policies of this party.
Answer:
Bahujan Samaj Party is known as B.S.P. This party represents the ‘Dalits’. B.S.P. was formed on April 14, 1984 by Mr. Kanshi Ram.
Policies of BSP. Following the policies of B.S.P.

• Opposition to every type of discrimination based on caste, birth, religion and race etc.
• To provide homes to the SC’s and ST’s.
• To make public sector profitable and to strengthen it.

Question 17.
There is lack of inner democray in Indian Political Parties. Prove it.
Or
Why is it said that there is lack of inner democracy in Political Parties?
Answer:
The political parties lack internal democracy and are built from above around hierarchical frames. Majority of the politcal parties have not held elections of the party orgnisation at different levels for a long time. Moreover, High Command of the political parties have complete control over the party and there is very less freedom of expression within the parties.

Question 18.
Write down the names, symbols and Presidents of National Political Parties.
Answer:

Name of Party	Symbol	President
1. Bharatiya Janata Party	Lotus	Sh. J.P. Nadda
2. Indian National Congress	Hand	Mrs. Sonia Gandhi
3. Bahujan Samaj Party	Elephant	Miss Mayawati
4. Nationalist Congress Party	Watch	Sh. Sharad Pawar
5. Trinmool Congress Party	Flowers and Grass	Miss Mamata Banerjee
6. Communist Party of India	Ears of Corn and Sickle	Sh. D. Raja
7. Communist Party of India (Marxist)	Sickle, Hammer and Star	Sh. Sitaram Yechury.
8. National People Party	Book	C.Sangma

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
How many total State Parties are there in India?
Answer:
In India there are National Political Parties as well as State Political Parties. Election Commission has recognised 53 state parties.

Question 2.
When did Indian National Congress Party come in existence?
Answer:
Indian National Congress was formed in 1885. Indian National Congress was established under the guidance and direction of A.O. Hume. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held at Bombay which was presided over by W.C. Bannerji while A.O. Hume acted as its secretary.

Question 3.
Mention any two features of Indian Party System.
Answer:

• Multiple Party System-India has a Multiple Party System. Election Commission has recognised eight national and 53 state parties.
• Communal Parties-An important feature of Indian party system is the existence of communal parties.

Question 4.
What type of Party System is in India?
Answer:
There is multi-party system in India. The Election Commission has recognised eight national parties and 53 state level parties.

Question 5.
Write a short note on the political programme of the Congress.
Answer:

• The highest priority for the Congress is to fulfil its pledge of giving power to the people.
• The Congress will resume the struggle against terrorism, secessionism, and fanaticism.

Question 6.
Write two points of political programme of the Bharatiya Janata Party.
Answer:

• The B.J.P. has pledged to defend the unity and integrity of India. It believes that all Indians irrespective of their language, caste or creed, are one people.
• The B.J.P. is committed to remove all sorts of corruption.

Question 7.
Explain the Industrial Policy of any National Political Party.
Answer:
The Congress Party emphasised modernisation, upgradation of technology, improvement in productivity and significant enhancement of the capabilities of management system. Special emphasis is on the development of agro-based industry.

Question 8.
Write the names of two political parties in India which are formed on the basis of caste.
Answer:

• D.M.K.
• AIADMK.

Question 9.
Write about the Economic policy of Marxist Communist Party.
Answer:

• The party favours vigorous implementation of land reforms; distribution of land to the tiller; cancellation of the debts of agricultural workers and poor peasants etc.
• The party favours that full trade union rights be given to central and state govt, employees.

Question 10.
What is the Agricultural Policy of Communist Party of India?
Answer:
The Agricultural Policy of C.P.I. is as under:

• The Party has demanded that the farmers, agricultural labourers and adivasis should be provided agricultural goods on cheap rates, and should be given loan facilities.
• Radical land reforms, distribution of surplus and government lands to the landless and poor peasants.

Question 11.
Write down Economic Policy of Communist Party of India.
Answer:

• Party promises to keep fifty per cent of the budget for development of agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry and so forth.
• The party will prevent the dilution of government equity in banks, privatization of insurance sector and transfer of pension and PF funds into speculative markets.

Question 12.
Explain briefly political policies and programmes of Shiromani Akali Dal.
Answer:
1. Shiromani Akali Dal promises that true federalism as contained in the Anandpur Sahib Resolution alone can broaden and deepen the bonds of Unity and Integrity of the great Indian nation. The states ought to enjoy genuine autonomy-political, legislative, fiscal and administrative within the federal framework. Strengthening of states will strengthen the union.

2. Shiromani Akali Dal believes in the concept of peace and prosperity with honour and dignity.

Question 13.
Explain economic policies and programmes of Shiromani Akali Dal.
Answer:

• Agriculture: Electricity will be supplied free of cost to all tubewells.
• Irrigation: The entire state’s cultivable land will be brought under irrigation, and new techniques of irrigation will be introduced.

Question 14.
Why is the number and importance of Regional Parties increasing in India?
Answer:
Very distinct peculiarity of Indian Party System is the existence of regional parties and regional parties are becoming very popular these days. Regional parties are becoming popular because these parties generally articulate a regional identity and particularism based on religion, language or culture.

Question 15.
Write down the names of Seven National Political Parties in India.
Answer:
The Election Commission has recognized Seven All India Parties. These are: The Indian National Congress, B.J.P., C.P.I., C.P.M., Bahujan Samaj Party, Trinmool Congress Party and Nationalist Congress Party.

Question 16.
Write down any two defects of Indian Political Party System.
Answer:

• The first major problem of political parties in India is organisational problem. Almost all the political parties are facing the problems of factionalism and dissidence.
• Defection is another major problem of Indian political parties.

Question 17.
By whom, when and why Bahujan Samaj Party was formed in India?
Answer:
Bahujan Samaj Party is known as B.S.P. This party represents the ‘Dalits’. B.S.P. was formed on April 14, 1984 by Mr. Kanshi Ram. Ms. Mayawati is the Supreme Leader of the BSP. The BSP has originated from the DS4 transforming itself into its political wing.

Question 18.
Write down the names of two National and two Regional Political Parties of India.
Answer:
National Political Parties: 1. Bharatiya Janata Party, 2. Indian National Congress.
Regional Political Parties: 1. Shiromani Akali Dal 2. National Conference.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What kind of party system exists in India?
Answer:
India has a multi-party-system.

Question 2.
At present how many National Parties exist in India?
Answer:
At Present eight National Parties exist in India.

Question 3.
At present how many state level parties exist in India?
Answer:
At present 53 state level parties exist in India.

Question 4.
In India who registers political parties?
Answer:
In India, the registration of political parties is done by Election Commission.

Question 5.
Who recognizes political parties in India?
Answer:
Election Commission.

Question 6.
When was Indian National Congress born?
Answer:
28 December, 1885.

Question 7.
When was Muslim League founded?
Answer:
Muslim League was founded in 1906.

Question 8.
When was Communist Party formed in India?
Answer:
Communist Party was formed in 1924.

Question 9.
When did division erupt in Communist Party of India?
Answer:
Communist Party was divided on 8 December, 1964.

Question 10.
Write down any one principle of Bhartiya Janata Party.
Answer:
Bhartiya Janata Party believes in secularism.

Question 11.
When was Janata Party founded?
Answer:
Janata Party was formally formed on 1 May, 1977. But practically it came into existence in January, 1977.

Question 12.
Which organisation was founded by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee?
Answer:
Shyama Prasad Mukherjee had founded Bhartiya Janasangh in 1951.

Question 13.
Name any one national political party of India and its election symbol.
Answer:
Bharatiya Janata Party is a National Political Party and its election symbol is ‘Lotus’.

Question 14.
In which year was Anti-defection Law enforced?
Answer:
Anti-defection Law was enforced in 1985.

Question 15.
In which state, D.M.K. is related?
Answer:
D.M.K. is related to Tamilnadu.

Question 16.
After Congress, name the oldest political party in India.
Answer:
After Congress, the oldest political party in India is the Muslim League which was founded in 1906.

Question 17.
Write down names of two National Political Parties in India.
Answer:
1. Indian National Congress.
2. Bhartiya Janata Party.

Question 18.
Write names of any two state parties in India.
Answer:
1. National Conference.
2. Shiromani Akali Dal.

Question 19.
Mention any one salient feature of Indian party system.
Answer:
As in Switzerland, India too has a multi-party system.

Question 20.
Mention anyone problem of political parties in India.
Answer:
The organisational elections in almost all political parties are not held in time. There have been elections in Congress Party after about ten years.

Question 21.
Mention any one principle of the policy of Congress Party.
Answer:
Congress Party believes in secularism.

Question 22.
What is meant by left parties?
Answer:
The parties which support revolutionary social and economic changes are called as the left parties.

Question 23.
When was Bahujan Samaj Party established?
Answer:
Babujan Samaj Party, was established on 14th April, 1984.

Question 24.
Who is the present President of the B. J.P.?
Answer:
Sh. J.P. Nadda.

Fill in The Blanks

1. There is …………… party system in India.
Answer:
Multi

2. Election Commission has recognised …………… National Parties.
Answer:
8

3. Indian National Congress was founded in …………… .
Answer:
1885

4. Sh …………… is the President of the B.J.P.
Answer:
J.P. Nadda

5. Shiromani Akali Dal is an important Regional Party of …………… .
Answer:
Punjab.

True Or False Statement

1. Communist Party of India is based on the ideology of capitalism.
Answer:
False

2. Sh. Gopal Krishan Gokhle was founder of Congress Party.
Answer:
False

3. Bahujan Samaj Party was established by Mayawati.
Answer:
False

4. ‘Lotus’ is the election symbol of B.J.P.
Answer:
True

5. ‘Watch’ is the election symbol of Nationalist Congress Party.
Answer:
True

6. There is one party system in India.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
The Communist Party of India was formally founded in the year:
(a) 1924
(b) 1931
(c) 1925
(d) 1947.
Answer:
(a) 1924

Question 2.
In India there prevails:
(a) Single Party System
(b) Bi-party System
(c) Multi Party System
(d) Single as well as Bi-Party System.
Answer:
(c) Multi Party System

Question 3.
Bharatiya Janata Party was founded in:
(a) 1952
(b) 1977
(c) 1980
(d) 1984.
Answer:
(c) 1980

Question 4.
The Communist Party of India was divided in two Political Parties in …………. .
(a) 1957
(b) 1960
(c) 1962
(d) 1964.
Answer:
(d) 1964.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 10 Democracy at Grassroots Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 10 Democracy at Grassroots

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Describe the structure of Panchayati Raj System in India.
Or
Discuss the composition and functions of the three tiers of the Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:
Late Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India, in the course of his speech at Rajpura in Punjab on December 4, 1960 said that three revolutions are at root in the whole of the country

More and more education
Use of new tools and methods of Agriculture and
Establishment of Panchayati Raj.

He said that Panchayati Raj is being established in the villages. The people will themselves make efforts to develop the villages and they will run the local administration themselves. In Dec, 1992 two houses of Parliament approved the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Bill which is considered as a landmark legislation in the process of decentralisation of power to the grassroot levels. A new part IX relating to Panchayats has been added in the Constitution of India by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act.

India is a land of villages and 70 per cent of population lives in the villages. It was but natural that government should pay more attention to the development of villages after Independence. Article 40 of the Constitution reads, “The state shall take steps to organise Village Panchayats and endow them to function as units of self government.” In 1952 the government started Community Development Projects and made plans for the development of villages.

In 1957 Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was set up to review the Community Development Programme. Mehta Committee recommended for a three-tier local self-government system in India to ensure decentralisation of power. The Panchayati Raj scheme was introduced first by Rajasthan on October 2, 1959. Then it was adopted by Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Assam, Punjab, U.P. etc. At present Panchayati Raj system has been adopted almost in all the states.

What is Panchayati Raj?
Panchayati Raj may be described as a complex system of rural local self-government in India. Panchayati Raj is that system of administration in which the village people are given the right to manage their own local affairs and to satisfy their needs themselves. The villagers use their right through the Village Panchayats and it is called Panchayati Raj.

Structure of Panchayati Raj:
The Panchayati Raj system as recommended by Balwant Rai Mehta Committee has been organised on a three-tier structure Gram
Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the Block level and Zila Parishad at the district level. But there are some states where Panchayati Raj is organised on a two-tier basis. These states are: Tripura, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Sikkim.

1. Panchayats:
Panchayats have been established in the villages. In Punjab a village with a population of 200 or more than this can have a panchayat of its own. If the population of a village is less than 200 it can have a common Panchayat with some other village. All the adults of a village are the members of Gram Sabha. Gram Sabha elects members of the Panchayat. According to Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994, every Gram Panchayat consists of 5 to 13 Panches and one Sarpanch.

The membership of a Panchayat is fixed on the basis of the population of the village. The Village Panchayat runs the village administration and tries to improve the lot of the villages. Its main function is to make all out efforts for the overall development of village life. The Gram Sabha meets at least once in six months and the Village Panchayat presents to it a report of its functions and it also gets its future programme approved by the Gram Sabha. The Village Panchayat is responsible for all its actions and policies to the Gram Sabha.

2. Panchayat Samiti:
In 1952 Development Blocks were made and each Block was placed under a Block Development Officer. In Panchayati Raj each Block has a Block Samiti known as Panchayat Samiti. According to Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994, every Panchayat Samiti consists of 6 to 10 members. In Punjab 60 percent of the total seats of Panchayat Samities are indirectly elected from the electoral colleges of Sarpanches. 40 percent of the total seats are directly elected. Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women are given special representation.

The members of the Legislative Assembly, Legislative Council and Lok Sabha elected from the Block are the associate members of Panchayat Samiti. The Sub-Divisional Magistrate and the Block Development Officer are the coopted members of the Samiti. The term of Panchayat Samiti is five years. The Panchayat Samities are expected to help in the execution of development programmes, encourage agriculture and small-scale industry. The Block Development Officer is the executive officer of the Panchayat Samiti. He executes the decisions and orders of the Samiti. The Panchayat Samiti looks after the working of Panchayats and gives them every possible assistance whenever required.

3. Zila Parishad:
Zila Parishad is the third and highest tier of Panchayati Raj. A Zila Parishad has been established in each district. The members of Zila Parishad are directly elected by the people and some are elected by the Panchayat Samities and President of each Panchayati Samiti is the member of Zila Parishad. MPs, MLAs and MLCs of the district are also its members. Certain seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women candidates.

According to Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994, every Zila Parishad consists of 10 to 25 members. The membership of a Zila Parishad is fixed on the basis of the population of the Zila Parishad area. Representatives of co-operative societies and municipalities of the district are also its members. The Zila Parishad looks after the working of Panchayat Samities and co-ordinates their working. It makes efforts for the development of the whole district.

Question 2.
What changes have been made in Panchayati Raj System under 73rd Constitutional Amendment?
Answer:
The Seventy-third amendment passed by the Parliament in December 1992 constitutes a major milestone in the history of rural local government in India. Seventy-third amendment became operative from 24 April 1993. In the Constitution, Part-IX and Schedule XI have been inserted which contains certain provisions for Panchayat bodies at village, intermediate and district level. Some of the important provisions contained in the Act are:

1. Constitutional Sanction to democracy at the grass-root level:
The 73rd Amendment Act has sought to provide constitutional Sanction to democracy at the grassroot level by inscribing in the Constitution a new part and a new schedule relating to Panchayats in the Constitution. Before the passage of this act, the Panchayats in India did not enjoy constitutional sanction.

2. Definition of Gram Sabha:
The 73rd Amendment Act provides the definition of Gram Sabha. According to it “Gram Sabha means body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls relating to a village comprised within the area of Panchayat at the village level.”

3. Definition of Panchayat:
According to 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, Panchayat means an institution of self-government constituted by the government for the rural area.

4. Constitution of Panchayati Raj Institutions:
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act provides that the state government shall consitute Panchayati Raj institutions in its territory as under:

• A village Panchayat in every village at village level in rural area.
• Panchayat Samiti at the intermediate (Tehsil or Development Block) level.
• A Zila Parishad at the district level.

5. Direct Election of the Members:
According to 73rd Amendment, all members of the Gram Panchayat are directly elected by the voters of the Gram Sabha. For this purpose the territorial area of each Gram Panchayat is divided into territorial constituencies—and one member is elected from each constituency. Minimum age of members of Panchayat is fixed at 21.

6. Reservation of Seats:
(i) According to 73rd Amendment Act, seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes in proportion to their population in the Gram Panchayat. Not less than one-third of the total number of the elected seats reserved for the Scheduled Castes shall be reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes.

(ii) One seat is reserved for Backward Classes in a Gram Panchayat where population of Backward Classes in the Gram Sabha area is more than twenty per cent of the total population of the Gram Sabha area.

(iii) Not less than one-third (including the number of elected seats reserved for women belonging to the scheduled castes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Gram Panchayat shall be reserved for women. .

7. Tenure of Panchayat:
According to 73rd Amendment Act, the tenure of Panchayats in all the states is 5 years. If a Panchayat is dissolved or superseded before the expiry of its tenure, it is obligatory to hold election within six months. Next elections of the Panchayat must be held before its term is over.

8. Powers and Functions of the Panchayati Raj Institutions:
According to 73rd amendment the state governments shall give the Panchayats powers and functions relating to subjects mentioned in the 12th Schedule.

9. Sources of Income of Panchayats:
The 73rd Amendment Act provides for the evolution of resources to local bodies and also empowers them to raise some resources of their own. Panchayats may be empowered by the State legislature to impose taxes and fees and duties and may be assigned a share in state government taxes and grants-in-aid.

10. State Election Commission:
For the supervision, superintendence and control of election staff of Panchayati Raj instittions, provision for the establishment of independent election commission at the state level has been made. The State Election Commission shall be appointed by the Governor and can be removed only in the manner prescribed for the Judge of the High Court.

11. Finance Commission:
According to 73rd Amendment Act, the Governor of a state shall appoint Finance Commission to review the financial position of the Panchayats and to make recommendation to the governor to improve the financial position of the Panchayats. The Finance Commission shall make recommendations for distribution of income of the state between the government and the municipalities and Panchayati Raj Institutions.

12. District Planning Committee:
The 73rd Amendment provides for the constitution of a District Planning Committee. District Planning Committee is responsible for the consolidated development plan for the district on the basis of development plans of municipalities and Panchayati Raj institutions of the district.

13. Audit of Accounts of Panchayats:
The Legislature of a state may by law, make provision with respect to the maintenance of accounts by the Panchayats and the auditing of such accounts.

14. Metropolitan Planning Committee:
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act also provides for the constitution of Metropolitan Planning Committee for making development plan for a metropolitan area consisting of two or more municipalities and Panchayati Raj institutions.

15. Election Petitions:
The 73rd amendment has provided that the state legislature shall make law for the hearing of election petition pertaining to the election of municipalities and Panchayati Raj institutions.

16. Part not to apply to Certain Area:
Nothing in this part shall apply to scheduled areas referred to in clause

• and the tribal areas referred to in Clause
• of Article 244.

17. Bar to interference by Court in Electoral Matters:
The 73rd Amendment Act puts a bar to interference by courts in electoral matters of Panchayats. According to 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act the state government will have to amend their existing Panchayat acts accordingly. All the state governments have enacted the fresh Panchayat legislations.

The Panchayati Raj, today, is functioning in all the states though there are inevitable variations from state to state. Following states have a three-tier structure- Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Assam, Haryana, Manipur, Orissa, and Kerala have a three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj while Jammu-Kashmir, Sikkim, Tripura and Goa have only one-tier. The northeastern states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland have each a traditional council of village elders and thus he outside the network of modern Panchyati Raj institutions.

Conclusion:
New Panachayati Raj system as introduced by the 73rd Constitutional Amendement Act is a historical development in the Indian Political System. The most distinctive feature of the new system is that an election to constitute a Panchayat has to be completed before the expiry of its normal tenure of five years.

Question 3.
Write a note on Gram Sabha.
Answer:
The Gram Sabha is the general body consisting of all the voters residing in the jurisdiction of Gram Panchayat which extends over one village or a group of villages. In some states the Gram Sabha is a statutory body while in some others it is a non-statutory body.

Office bearers:
The Gram Sabha elects a Gram Pradhan for five years. He is also the Pradhan or Sarpanch of the Gram Panchayat. The Gram Sabha also elects executive council known as Gram Panchayat.

Meetings:
The Gram Sabha meets at least twice a year. One meeting is held in December after the harvesting of the Sawni crop and the second meeting is held in June after the Harhi Crop. The Gram Pradhan has a right to call special meetings of the Gram Sabha. Quorum of the Gram Sabha meeting is one-fifth of the total members of the Gram Sabha.

Functions of Gram Sabha:
Following are the main functions of the Gram Sabha:

• The Gram Sabha decides the broad policies for the development of the village.
• The Gram Sabha approves the annual budget of the village and it deliberates on the taxes proposed by the Gram Panchayat and votes on impositions of taxes or tolls.
• The Gram Sabha considers the audit report of the Gram Panchayat and also considers administrative report of the Gram Panchayat.
• The Gram Sabha elects the Pradhan and the Panches of the Panchayat.
• The Gram Sabha can remove the Pradhan and Panches of the Panchayat by passing a resolution by two-thirds majority.
• The Gram Sabha promotes programme of adult education and family welfare within the village.
• The Gram Sabha promotes unity and harmony among all sections of society in the village.

The Gram Sabha is supposed to work as a watchdog of the Gram Panchayat. But in practice it is not functioning effectively and it also does not meet regularly. People show little or no interest in attending the meetings of the Gram Sabha. The microscopic minority dominates the show when Gram Sabha meetings are held. Iqbal Narain and P.C. Mathur observed that the Gram Sabha is yet to emerge as a forum of constructive criticism of the working of the Panchayati Raj institutions. Diwakar Committee has suggested that the Gram Sabha will have to be gradually brought into the picture by assigning to it a definite status.

Question 4.
Describe the composition and functions of Gram Panchayat.
Or
Write down the powers and functions of the Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
The Village Panchayat is the main institution for running the administration of local affairs of the village. At present more than 2,50,000 Village Panchayats are working in India. In the past also the Panchayats were attached great importance. The village administration was run by these Panchayats. The Panchayats peformed their functions efficiently even in small villages. With the advent of the Britishers the Panchayats got a big setback. After 1880, the British rule in India made efforts to revive the local self-government system.

It was only in cities that local selfgovernment institutions were established. After Independence our Government paid special attention towards this end. Eighty per cent of India lives in the villages and if the condition of the villages does not improve, the country cannot make any progress. Mahatma Gandhi stressed the need of establishment of Panchayats and of giving more powers to them. In 1952, the Punjab government established Panchayats in all the villages by passing a law to this effect. Steps were taken to establish Panchayats in other States also. At present there are more than two lakh and fifty thousand Panchayats in India.

Composition:
In Punjab Panchayats have been established in all the villages whose population is two hundred or more than this. If the population of a village is less than 200 then a joint Panchayat of two villages is established. The size of the membership of the Gram Panchayat varies from 5 to 31. In Haryana membership of the Panchayat is between 6 and 20 while in Punjab it is between 5 and 13. The membership of a Panchayat is fixed on the basis of the population of the village. In Punjab every Gram Sabha elects a Sarpanch and such number of Panches is as indicated below against each slab of population-

S. No.	Population	No of Panches
1.	For population exceeding 200 but not exceeding 1,000	Five
2.	For population exceeding 1,000 but not exceeding 2,000	Seven
3.	For population exceeding 2,000 but not exceeding 5,000	Nine
4.	For population exceeding 5,000 but not exceeding 10,000	Eleven
5.	For population exceeding 10,000	Thirteen

According to Punjab Panchayati Act 1994, seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes in proportion to their population in the Gram Panchayat.Reservation of Seats:

• One seat is reserved for Backward Classes in a Gram Panchayat where population of Backward Classes in the Gram Sabha area is more than twenty per cent of the total population of the Gram Sabha area.
• In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women in Gram Panchayat.

Election:
The members of the Gram Panchayat are elected by the members of the Gram Sabha directly by secret ballot. Every adult who is a resident of the village has got the right to vote in the Panchayat elections. Any voter who is 21 years of age or more can contest the election and become a member of the Village Panchayat.

Tenure:
Before 73rd Amendment the tenure of Panchayat in all the states was not uniform. Usually the members of a Panchayat were elected for a five year term. But according to 73rd Amendment the tenure of Panchayat in all states is five years. If a Panchayat does not perform its functions properly, the Director of Panchayat can dissolve it. But election to the dissolved Panchayat must be held within six months.

Chairman:
There is the head of the Panchayat who is called the Sarpanch. Other members of the Panchayat are called the Panches. In Punjab Sarpanch is elected directly by the voters. Offices of Sarpanches of Gram Panchayat in the district are reserved for Scheduled Castes in proportion to the population of Scheduled Castes to the total population of the district.

Not less than one-third of the offices of Sarpanches of Gram Panchayat belonging to the Scheduled Castes shall be reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Caste. Not less than one third of the total number of offices of Sarpanches in the district shall be reserved for women including the seats reserved for women belonging to Scheduled Castes. The offices of Sarpanches reserved shall be allotted by rotation to the different Gram Panchayats in such a manner as may be prescribed. The tenure of the office of the Sarpanch co-terminates with the term of the Gram Panchayat.

Functions of the Sarpanch: Following are the main functions of the Sarpanch:

• The Sarpanch is responsible for convening the meetings of the Gram Sabha and presides over its meetings.
• The Sarpanch is responsible for convening the meetings of the Gram Panchayat and presides over its meetings.
• The Sarpanch is responsible for the maintenance of the records of the Gram Panchayat.
• The Sarpanch has the general responsibility for the financial and executive administration of the Gram Panchayat.
• The Sarpanch exercises administrative supervision and control over the work of the staff of the Gram Panchayat.

Quorum: The majority of the members of Gram Panchayat constitute the quorum for the meetings.

Procedure of Taking Decision: All the decisions of the Panchayat are taken by an ordinary majority. The Sarpanch has got the right to exercise a casting vote.
Meetings: The Panchayat must hold its meetings at least once a month and the Sarpanch presides over the meeting of the Panchayat.

Powers and Functions of the Village Panchayat:
Following are the main functions of the Village Panchayat-

• Administrative Functions.
• It maintains peace and order in the village.
• It helps the police in the prevention of crimes and in the arrest of criminals.
• It can oppose the sale of wine in its jurisdiction by passing a resolution by 2/3 majority.
• It keeps a watch on the work of the government officials in the village. The Village Panchayat can lodge a complaint to the Deputy Commissioner against the Patwari, Lambardar and Chowkidar if they do not perform their duties properly.

2. Functions of Public Welfare:

1. It makes sanitary arrangements in the village.
2. It makes efforts for improving the health of the people, and for this purpose it opens hospitals and dispensaries. It also establishes child welfare and maternity centres.
3. It makes arrangements for giving small pox and cholera injections to the people.
4. It makes arrangements for pure drinking water and for pouring medicine in the wells, tanks etc.
5. It makes arrangement for street and road light.
6. It also makes arrangements for providing primary education to the children.
7. It opens libraries and reading rooms in the village.
8. It looks after the public places and makes arrangements for their sanitation.
9. It makes arrangements for cremation and burial grounds.
10. It gets trees planted and looks after them.
11. It tries for the promotion of animal husbandry.
12. It is also the duty of the Panchayat to work for the promotion of agriculture. It makes arrangements for good seeds and acquaints the villagers with improved and scientific methods of agriculture.
13. It tries for the development of cottage industry so that unemployed villagers get employment.
14. It tries to improve the social life of the people by eradicating social evils in society.
15. It helps people economically in case of floods, famine and drought.
16. It makes arrangements for fairs, exhibitions, wrestling matches and kabaddi matches for providing recreation to the people.
17. It constructs and maintains streets, roads and bridges in the village.
18. It formulates and implements development programmes of the village.
19. It works for the welfare of the backward sections of the village communities, especially the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.

3. Judicial Powers:
It decides minor civil and criminal cases within its areas. Now the villagers need not go to the tehsil or the District headquarters to get their disputes decided. In criminal sphere the Panchayats can hear petty cases involving mischief, assault, theft of property etc. on payment of prescribed fee. These fees are of a nominal nature. They can hear civil cases of the value of 200 rupees. They can impose a fine upto Rs. 200.

One thing is to be noted that the lawyers cannot appear before the Panchayats. Both the parties are to appear before the Panchayat to plead their case. In criminal cases the Panchayat can only impose a fine and it cannot sentence anybody to imprisonment. It can impose a fine up to Rs. 25 upon those who defy its orders. Normally the decisions of the Panchayats are final but an appeal can be made to the court of District Magistrate with its prior sanction.

Sources of Income:
The Panchayat needs money for the performance of its functions. It gets this amount from the following sources:

1. It gets 10 per cent of the total revenue collected from the village.
2. It imposes house tax.
3. Anybody who approaches the Panchayat for deciding a case is to pay a nominal fee. This fee is to be given in cash.
4. It imposes fines on the criminals and keeps that amount with it.
5. It gets profit from the sale of fertilizers.
6. It imposes tax on animals, vehicles, profession etc.
7. Income from water, if provided.
8. Fees for use of rest houses.
9. Drainage fee.
10. It can get subscription from villagers for performing some important duty.
11. It imposes tax on village fairs, markets and exhibitions.
12. The Panchayats are given financial aid by the government annually.
13. The Panchayats issue various types of licences and get a fee for the same.
14. It takes money by selling the skin of dead animals.

Question 5.
Describe the composition, powers and functions of the Panchayat Samiti or Block Samiti.
Or
Discuss the composition, functions and powers of the Panchayat Samiti.
Answer:
The intermediate tier in the Panchayati Raj System is known in several states as the Panchayat Samiti. In Madhya Pradesh it is known as Janapad Panchayat while in Gujarat it is known as Taluka Panchayat. In a majority of states, its jurisdiction is co-extensive with the block while in some states it is co-extensive with that of Taluka.

Composition of Panchayat Samiti:
A Panchayat Samiti consists of the following four types of members:
1. Elected or Primary Members. In Punjab every Panchayat Samiti consists of six to ten directly elected members.

2. Representatives of the Sarpanches are directly elected from amongst the Sarpanches of the Gram Panchayats in the Panchayat Samiti area provided that ratio of the representatives of the Sarpanches and that of the directly elected members shall be sixty: forty.

3. Members of the Legislative Assembly State of Punjab, major portion of whose constituency falls in the Panchayat Samiti area.

4. Members of the Legislative Council of the State of Punjab, who are registered as electors within the Panchayat Samiti area.

Right to Vote:
The members of the Panchayat Samiti whether or not chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the Panchayat Samiti shall have the right to vote in the meetings of the Panchayat Samiti except for election and removal of its Chairman or Vice-Chairman.

Reservation of Seats:
According to Punjab Panchayat Raj Act 1994, in every Panchayat, seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes, women and the Backward Classes. In every Panchayat Samiti seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes in proportion to their population in Panchayat Samiti area. One-third of the total number of the seats reserved for Scheduled Castes are reserved for the women of the Scheduled Castes. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women in Panchayat Samiti. One seat is reserved for Backward Classes in a Panchayat Samiti in which the population of Backward Classes is not less than twenty percent of the total population of the Panchayat Samiti area.

Tenure:
Before 73rd Amendment the tenure of the Panchayat Samiti was fixed by the State government and it was not the same in all the States. But 73rd Amendment has fixed the tenure of the Samiti 5 years for all the states. In Punjab tenure of Panchayat Samiti is five years.

Chairman:
The members of the Panchayat Samiti elect a Chairman and Vice-Chairman from amongst the elected members. He presides over the meetings of the Samiti. The Chairman discharges all duties imposed and exercises all the powers conferred on him under the Act. The Chairman exercises supervision and control over the executive officer of the Panchayat Samiti for securing implementation of the decision of the Panchayat Samiti. The Chairman exercises over all supervision over the financial and executive administration of the Panchayat Samiti.

Meetings:
A Panchayat Samiti must hold a meeting atleast once in two months. One-third of the members of Panchayat Samiti may make a written request to the Chairman for calling a special meeting of the Panchayat Samiti. The Chairman shall have to convene special meeting of the Panchayat Samiti.

Quorum:
The majority of the total members of Panchayat Samiti constitute a quorum for the meeting of the Panchayat Samiti.

Executive Officer:
The Block Development Officer is the Executive Officer of the Panchayat Samiti. He runs the day-to-day administration of the Samiti. Besides this, there is a Panchayat Officer also. The Executive Officer and the Panchayat Officer work in co-operation with each other.

Powers and Functions
The Panchayat Samiti performs the following functions:
1. The Panchayat Samiti looks after the working of Panchayats in its area.

2. It tries to promote agriculture in its area and distribute among the farmers good seeds, fertilizers and scientific instruments. It makes propaganda of scientific methods of agriculture among the farmers. It advances loans to the farmers for the promotion of agricultural production. It tries to make better arrangements of irrigation in its area.

3. It tries to promote cottage industries in its area.

4. It takes steps for the promotion of animal husbandry.

5. It makes sanitary arrangement in its area. It takes steps for improving the health of the people. It opens hospitals, child welfare centres and maternity centres.

6. It makes arrangements for getting the people injected against various diseases. It also takes steps for the prevention of diseases.

7. It makes efforts to protect crops from rats, locusts and other insects.

8. It constructs and maintains roads and bridges in its area.

9. It extends co-operation to the Co-operative Societies in its area.

10. It makes arrangements for village fairs, exhibitions and markets.

11. It also attends to the promotion of education in its area and it opens reading- rooms and libraries in its area.

12. It starts Community Development Projects and makes every possible effort for the development of the area.

13. It tries to give relief to the people in case of famine, drought and floods in its area.

14. It maintains a record of births and deaths in its area.

15. It maintains and looks after the government’s property.

16. It can acquire property in the interest of public welfare.

17. It maintains playgrounds and gardens.

18. Panchayat Samiti promotes social welfare programme including welfare of handicapped, mentally retarded and destitutes.

19. Panchayat Samiti promotes programmes relating to development of women and children.

20. Panchayat Samiti promotes the welfare of Scheduled Castes, Backward Classes and other weaker sections of society. Panchayat Samiti also protects Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes and other weaker sections from social injustice and exploitation.

21. Panchayat Samiti is responsible for the public distribution system of essential commodities.

22. Panchayat Samiti promotes social education through Youth Clubs and Mahila Mandals.

23. Panchayat Samiti promotes rural electrification including distribution of electricity.

24. Panchayat Samiti promotes co-operative activities.

Source of Income or Panchayat Samiti Fund:
Panchayat Samiti Fund is created for every Panchayat Samiti and following items are placed in this fund-

1. All proceeds of local rate allocated to the Panchayat Samiti by the State Government.
2. The proceeds of all taxes, cesses, duties and fees imposed by the Panchayat Samiti under this Act.
3. All funds allocated to the Panchayat Samiti and income arising from all sources of income placed at its disposal.
4. All rents and profits accruing from property vested in or managed by the Panchayat Samiti.
5. All sums contributed to the Fund by the Central Government or any State Government or by any local authority including Gram Panchayat or any private person.
6. All sums received by the Panchayat Samiti in the discharge of functions exercised by it under this Act.
7. All sums paid by the State Government or Central Government for the implementation of Community
8. Development Programmes.
9. All sums paid by the State Government to the Panchayat Samiti to meet expenses for the performance of agency functions.
10. The proceeds of all sources of income which the State Government may order to be placed at the authority of the Panchayat Samiti.

Question 6.
Discuss the composition, functions and financial resources of Zila Parishad.
Or
How is the Zila Parishad organised? Discuss its functions.
Answer:
Zila Parishad is at the apex of the Panchayati Raj System. Zila Parishad is established at the district level. It is known by different names. In Assam it is known as Mahakuma Parishad. In Tamil Nadu and Karnataka it is known as the District Development Council and in Gujarat as the District Panchayat.

Composition:
Zila Parishad comprises the following categories of members:

1. The members are directly elected from territorial constituencies in the district, each constituency electing one member. Directly elected members are between 10 and 25.
2. All Chairmen of Panchayat Samities.
3. The members of the Lok Sabha and members of the Legislative Assembly of the district.
4. Those members of the Rajya Sabha who are registered as voters within the district.

All members of a Zila Parishad whether elected or not from territorial constituencies in the Zila Parishad area enjoy right to vote in the meetings of the Zila Parishad except in the election of its Chairman and Vice-Chairman.

Reservation of Seats:
In every Zila Parishad seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Backward Classes and women. Seats reserved for Scheduled Castes are in the some proportion to the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in that Zila Parishad as the population of the Scheduled Castes in the district bears to the total population in the district. In Punjab, 50% seats are reserved for women in Zila Parishad. One seat is reserved for backward classes in a Zila Parishad in which the population of backward classes is not less than 20 percent of the total population of the district.

Tenure:
Before 73rd Amendment, tenure of Zila Parishad was not the same in all the states. In the majority of the states the tenure of Zila Parishad was five years. In Assam, Karnataka and West Bengal it was four years while in Bihar it was three years. But 73rd Amendment has fixed the tenure of 5 years in all the states. If it is dissolved before the expiry of this term elections must be held within six months. The government can dissolve the Zila Parishad at any time.

Chairman and Vice-Chairman:
Directly elected members of the Zila Parishad and Chairman of the Panchayat Samities of the district elect the Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the Zila Parishad from amongst the elected members.

Reservation for the office of Chairman and Vice-Chairman:
The Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 provides for the reservation of seats for the offices of Chairman and Vice-Chairman of Zila Parishad, for the persons belonging to the Scheduled Castes. The number of such offices should be in the same proportion to the total number of offices in the State of Punjab as the population of the Scheduled Castes in the state bears to the total population of the State.

Not less than one-third of the total number of offices of the Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the Zila Parishad are reserved for women.
Tenure of the Chairman and Vice-Chairman. The tenure of the Chairman and Vice-Chairman shall be co-terminus with that of Zila Parishad. However, the elected members of the Zila Parishad can remove the Chairman and Vice-Chairman by two-third majority.

Powers and Functions of Chairman:
The Chairman convenes, presides and conducts the meetings of the Zila Parishad. The Chairman exercises administrative supervision and controls over the Chief executive officer and through him all officers and other employees of the Zila Parishad. He exercises full supervision over the financial administration of Zila Parishad.

Secretary:
Each Zila Parishad has a Secretary who runs the day-to-day administration of the Zila Parishad. He is paid his salary every month. The government makes appointment of the Secretary on the recommendations of the Zila Parishad.

Meetings:
The meetings of the Zila Parishad must be held at least four times in a year. The quorum for holding the meetings of Zila Parishad has been fixed as the presence of l/3rd members of its total membership.

Functions of The Zila Parishad
Following are the functions and powers of the Zila Parishad-

1. Zila Parishad tries to promote agricultural production and it opens and maintains agricultural seed farms and commercial farms.
2. It establishes and maintains godowns and gives training to farmers.
3. Zila Parishad takes steps for development of irrigation and for this purpose it constructs, renovates and maintains minor irrigation works and lift irrigation.
4. Zila Parishad establishes veterinary hospitals and dispensaries; poultry farms, duck farms and goat farms; common cold storage facility for dairy, poultry and fishery products.
5. It tries to co-ordinate the working of Panchayats and Panchayat Samities in the district.
6. The Panchayat Samities pass their annual budget and send it to the Zila Parishad. The Zila Parishad gives its approval to the budget after considering it thoroughly.
7. It keeps a watch on the working of Panchayat Samities in its area.
8. If a Panchayat Samiti does not perform its functions properly, the Zila Parishad can assist it in the performance of its duties.
9. It makes efforts to improve the living standard of the village life. It also tries for the development of village life.
10. It can give suggestions to the government regarding the development of villages.
11. If two or more than two villages have common project, the Zila Parishad tries to co-ordinate their working and helps in making the plana success.
12. The government can shift responsibility of making any plan or project a success on the Zila Parishad.
13. The Zila Parishad with the approval of the government can collect money from the Panchayat Samities.
14. The Zila Parishad can advise the government on the issues of distribution of powers and co-ordination of work among the Panchayat Samities.
15. The Zila Parishad adopts measures to increase agricultural production.
16. The Zila Parishad do construction, renovation and maintenance of minor irrigation works and lift irrigation.
17. The Zila Parishad promotes educational activities, Social Welfare activities and works for the welfare of weaker sections of society.
18. Zila Parishad is responsible for the construction and maintenance of roads other than national and state highways; identification of major link roads connecting markets, educational institutions, health centres and link roads.
19. Zila Parishad is responsible for planning, supervision, monitoring and implementation of-poverty alleviation programmes.
20. Zila Parishad maintains Social Welfare Institutions such as Poor Home Orphanages, Rescue Shelters and the like.
21. Zila Parishad encourages community marriages and inter-caste marriages; identifies free and rehabilitates bonded labour; organises cultural and recreational activities; encourages sports and games and construction of stadium.

Sources of Income:
For every Zila Parishad, Zila Parishad Fund is constituted and fallowing items are included in this fund:

1. Contribution and grants, if any, made by the Central government or by the state government including such part of land revenue collected in the state as may be determined by the state government.
2. Contributions and grants, if any made by a Panchayat Samiti or any other local authority.
3. Loans if any granted by Zila Parishad on security of its assets.
4. The proceeds of road tax and public work tax levied in the district.
5. All receipts on account of taxes, tolls, rates, cess and fee imposed by the Zila Parishad.
6. All receipts in respect of any schools, hospitals, dispensaries, buildings, institutions or works vested in, constructed by or placed under the control and management of the Zila Parishad.
7. The total amount received as gift or contribution and all income from any trust or endowment made in favour of Zila Parishad.
8. Fine and penalties imposed and realized under the provisions of this Act.

Question 7.
Explain the problems of Panchayati Raj.
Or
Explain any six problems of Panchayati Raj.
Answer:
In 1952 Village Panchayats were established and municipal committees were given more powers. Afterwards Panchayati Raj was introduced in the villages. But after so many years of the establishment of Panchayati Raj, it has not been successful in achieving its objectives. The Panchayati Raj System suffers from various defects which are given as follows:

1. Illiteracy:
The majority of the villagers are uneducated and most of the members of a village Panchayats are also uneducated. The Sarpanches of most of the Panchayats are also uneducated and they do not know even how to put their signatures. The people also do not take interest in the working of the Panchayat. As a result of all this incompetent and uneducated people are elected as the members of the Panchayat. No local self-government institution can be a success unless both the electors and the elected are educated.

2. Ignorance:
As majority of the villagers are illiterate, they are ignorant about the aims of the Panchayati Raj. Only one-fifth of the men who run these institutions are aware that the ultimate goal of Panchayati Raj is to make the rural masses more self-reliant. Unfortunately, one-eighth of the rural leadership is conscious that one of the goals of Panchayati Raj is to improve the lot of weaker sections.

3. Communalism:
The villagers have developed the evil spirit of communalism. The villagers not only believe in communalism but they also practise it. During elections to the Village Panchayat, the people are always divided on the basis of religion and caste. The village society is very much caste-ridden and they always vote on the basis of caste. Even after the elections the caste system always remains at the forefront. The Panchayat always remains a divided house and all its decisions are made on the basis of caste of the contending parties. The members of the Panchayat cannot work as a team because each one of them is caste conscious.

4. Groupism:
The people form their groups on the eve of Panchayat elections. The whole mass of the villagers is faction-ridden. The elections of the Panchayats are contested by the people on the basis of their affiliations to political parties. The political parties should have no place in Panchayat elections. People in the village form groups and factions on the basis of caste, religion and creed. As a result of all this, the Panchayats and the municipal committee cannot function successfully.

5. Excessive control of the Government:
The Government exercises a greater degree of control in the working of Panchayats and Municipal Committees. It can interfere in the working of these institutions any time it likes. As a result of this these institutions feel discouraged. The government can reject the resolutions passed by these institutions. It also controls the budget of these institutions. These institutions do not develop the spirit of responsibility because of undue interference in their working by the government. These elected representatives of the institutions always remain at the mercy of the government officials.

6. Want of funds:
These institutions do not have enough funds to meet its needs. Their sources of income are rather very poor and the heads of expenditure are many. This imbalance usually hampers progress. Many of the vital programmes cannot be executed for want of funds. In some cases for their very existence these bodies are to depend on the local government. It is, therefore, essential that efforts should be made to provide more funds to these bodies.

7. Poverty:
The people of India are very poor. The villagers suffer from the social evil of poverty to a very great degree. People cannot pay excessive taxes due to poverty and, therefore, the Panchayats cannot increase their income by imposing more taxes on the people. The poor people are always worried about making their both ends meet and they cannot afford to think about the problems of the village, city and the country. That is why the people do not take interest in their local problems.

8. Urbanisation;
Urbanisation is another problem confronting Panchayati Raj. There is tendency among the educated people to migrate from villages to cities. These educated people may otherwise contribute a lot for the success of Panchayati Raj.

Question 8.
Suggest methods to remove the defects of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:
The defects of the Panchayati Raj can be removed by following the ways given below:
1. Spread of Education:
The spread of education is most essential for making the Panchayati Raj System a success. The institutions of Panchayati Raj cannot function successfully unless the people are educated and do not perform their duties sincerely. An educated person will make the proper use of his vote and will be above caste and religion. The educated persons can run the administration of their village or city in a better way than the uneducated persons. The educated persons will promote the national interests of the country. The Village Panchayat can be a great success at the hands of educated persons.

2. Less Governmental Interference:
The Panchayati Raj institution should be given more independence and autonomy in the discharge of their duties. Unfortunately governmental control over these bodies is rather excessive. This control is usually very much resented. The government officials do not come with the object of improving the working of these bodies, but with a view to impose their authority, which is resented. This type of control kills initiative. The government, instead of interfering in the working of local bodies, should give them proper guidance.

3. More Financial Aid:
The Panchayati Raj institutions always run short of funds. The government should give liberal financial aid to these institutions. The government should give adequate funds to these institutions for all their schemes which aim at raising the living standard of the people and as eradicating poverty. The government should not at all attach any strings to the financial aid given to these institutions. These institutions should have the power to impose more taxes to increase their income. Efforts should be made to make these institutions quite independent of the financial aid of the government .

4. Ban on Political Parties in the Elections of Local bodies:
The elections to the local bodies should not be held on the basis of political parties. The political parties are responsible for the growth of groupism and communalism among the members of these institutions. In the elections to the local bodies the individuals should contest elections only as independent candidates. This way capable persons would be elected to these bodies and people will not be obliged to cast their votes on party basis. The local self-government institutions will function successfully only when educated and intelligent persons are elected as its members.

Training for the members:
The procedure of working of Panchayati Raj institutions is very complex and complicated. To make Panchayati Raj successful it is essential that the members of the Panchayati Raj institutions should be given proper training so that they become conversant with their duties and responsibilities.

The 73rd Amendment has provided decentralisation of power down to the village level. The 73rd amendment has provided constitution of Panchayats at the village and other levels, direct elections to all seats in Panchayats and reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes and fixing of tenure of five years for Panchayats. The 73rd Amendment is considered a landmark legislation in the process of decentralisation of power to the grass-roots level. Unlike in the past when the Panchayat Raj institutions were dominated by the money and muscle power, now the under-privileged classes, including rural women, would be able to play more effective role and the people’s democracy would become more genuine.

Question 9.
Explain the achievements of Panchayati Raj in India.
Or
Write down the achievements of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:
Panchayati Raj has a great importance. Late Pt. Jawahar Lai Nehru had called it a revolution. It is a revolution which will help in building up a new India. The significance of the Panchayati Raj is clear from the following facts:
1. People’s Raj:
The most important thing about the Panchayati Raj is that it is a people’s Raj. People’s administration had been established in the villages. There is no good administration than the administration by the people themselves.

2. Direct Democracy:
Panchayati Raj is not in any way less than the establishment of a democratic government in the village. The villagers themselves control the administration of their village. All the adult citizens of the village in their capacity, as the members of Gram Sabha, meet twice a year and discuss the problems of the village and find their solutions.

3. Self-sufficiency:
Panchayati Raj aims at making every village self-dependent for the purpose of making and executing their development plAnswer: It should decide on its own, it should even solve its own problem and it should run the local administration itself. Panchayats and Panchayat Samities are the people’s own institutions and they impose and collect taxes to meet the requirement of the villagers. Before the establishment of Village Panchayats, the government officials used to make development plans for the villages and they executed them according to their own sweet will. But now the people themselves run the whole show. The Block Development Officer now executes the decisions taken by the Panchayat Samiti.

4. Self-confidence:
Panchayati Raj helps in the development of the spirit of self-confidence among the people, and it helps in building up a great and
grand nation. The villagers themselves make development plans and execute them in their own way. The Panchayats have been given independence in the judicial sphere also. The lawyers cannot appear before the Panchayats. Everybody can have his say freely before the Panchayat. There are no fixed rules for deciding cases by the Panchayat. Each Panchayat decides cases according to its own sweet will. The villagers now need not go to the tehsil and district headquarters for getting their minor disputes decided. The villagers can get all their things in the village itself. They gain confidence by doing everything by themselves.

5. Less outside interference:
With the establishment of Panchayati Raj there is less outside interference in the affairs of the villages. The government officials now cannot interfere in the working of the Panchayats, Panchayat Samities and Zila Parishad. The people decide all the issues of their own sweet accord. Panchayati Raj has helped a great deal in developing the spirit of independence among the people.

6. Training in Administration to the people:
In India there is democratic government and each and every citizen is expected to be ready to shoulder the responsibility of running the government. Panchayati Raj is the best means of giving training in administration to the people. In cities the local self-government institutions provide training in making laws to the people but they do not give training in deciding cases to the people.

The Panchayati Raj provides an opportunity to the people of making and executing development plan, of deciding cases and running the day-to-day administration of the local affairs. This training of running the village administration stands in good stead to the people when they are called upon to run the administration of their State.

7. Rapid development of Rural life:
When Panchayati Raj was introduced in Punjab, the then Development and Panchayat Minister Sh. Gurbanta Singh had remarked that the day is not far when every citizen because of democratic decentralisation will become the architect of his own future. Everybody will have a share in the administration and he will have the power of removing his own illiteracy, ignorance and poverty. Now every villager has the right to develop himself to the fullest extent possible, Panchayati Raj has proved to be boon from heaven for the villagers.

Question 10.
Describe organisation and functions of City Corporation in India.
Or
Describe the functions of Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
Municipal Corporation is the topmost of urban local government. A Municipal Corporation is set up under a special statute passed by the state legislature, except in Delhi. The Union Parliament is empowered to set up the corporation of Delhi. First of all in 1849 a Municipal Corporation was established in Bombay (Mumbai).

Organisation:
Organisation of Municipal Corporation in different cities is not the same. The members of the corporation called councillors are elected on adult franchise. The number of members is determined by law on the basis of population of the city. In addition to the elected councillors some dignified residents of the city are elected by the councillors. In Punjab the total number of elected councillors for a corporation is not less than fifty and not more than seventy. Members of the State Legislative Assembly representing the constituencies in which the city or any part thereof falls, or ex-officio members of the Municipal Corporation.

Reservation of Seats:
In every Corporation seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Backward Classes and women.

1. The ratio of seats reserved for Scheduled Castes is in proportion to the total population of Scheduled Castes in the Municipal Corporation area. In Punjab, 50% seats are reserved for women in Municipal Corporations.

2. In every Municipal Corporation two seats are reserved for backward classes.

3. One-third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election are reserved for women and such seats are alotted by rotation to the different wards in the city.

Tenure:
Before 74th Amendment, the tenure of the Municipal Corporation varies from three to five years. The Punjab Municipal Corporation Act 1994 provides that every corporation save as otherwise provided in this Act shall continue for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting and to longer. New election shall take place before the expiry of five years term.

An election to constitute a Municipal Corporation shall be completed before the expiry of period of six months from the date of its dissolution. A corporation constituted upon the dissolution of a Municipal Corporation before the expiration of its duration, shall constitute only for the remainder of the period for which the dissolved corporation would have constituted. But by 74th Amendment, tenure is fixed as five years.

Qualifications:
Following qualifications are necessary for becoming the member of Municipal Corporation:

• The person should be a citizen of India.
• He must have completed the age of 21 years.
• His name should be in the voter list of the city concerned.
• He should not hold any office of profit under the government of India or any State government of local authority.
• He should not be insolvent and he should not be of unsound mind.
• He should not be held ineligible to contest election for committing a crime.

Officers of the Municipal Corporation:
Following are the main officers of the Municipal Corporation:
1. Mayor:
The Mayor is the first citizen of the city. The Mayor is the political executive of the municipal corporation. In the first meeting of the Municipal Corporation the members elect one of its members to be the Mayor and other two members to be the Senior Deputy Mayor and Deputy Mayor of the Corporation. The term of the office of a Mayor, Senior Deputy Mayor and Deputy Mayor is five years. The Mayor holds office from the time of his election until the election of his successor in office.

Mayor or Senior Deputy Mayor or Deputy Mayor can be removed from his office if a resolution is passed by a majority of the total membership of the Corporation by majority of not less than two-third of the members of the Corporation and present and voting in a meeting of the Corporation. When the Mayor is absent from duty on account of illness or any other cause, the Senior Deputy Mayor and in his absence the Deputy Mayor act as Mayor.

The Mayor is honoured as the first citizen of the city. He presides over the meetings of the corporation and maintains order in the meetings. He has access to all the records of the corporation. The Chief Administrative Officer or the Commissioner submits report on administrative matters to him. He is the proper channel of communication between the Commissioner and the State Government.

2. Chief Administrative Officer:
For running the administration of the Corporation, Chief Executive Officer or Commissioner is responsible. He is appointed by the state government. His salary and service conditions are fixed by the state government. His salary is paid out of municipal funds. He performs all the duties imposed or conferred upon him under the Act and, in times of emergency, may take any action he deems necessary. All municipal employees are subject to his supervision and control. He inflicts punishments for offences committed by the employees. He acts as a secretary to the corporation in furnishing the necessary information.

Functions of Corporation:
The functions of Municipal Corporation are of two types: 1. obligatory and 2. discretionary. The obligatory functions include those functions which must be performed by the corporation. The discretionary functions are those which are not compulsory but may be taken up depending upon its financial resources.

Obligatory Functions:

1. Supply of water and maintenance of water works.
2. Scavenging, removal and disposal of filth and rubbish.
3. Supply of electricity.
4. Construction and maintenance of roads and streets.
5. Lighting, watering and cleaning of public streets and public places.
6. Maintenance of fire-brigade.
7. To establish, manage and supervise schools.
8. Arrangement of transport facilities.
9. The removal of obstructions and projections in or upon streets, bridges and other public places.
10. Prevention of epidemic diseases and distribution of medicines.
11. Checking food adulteration in markets.
12. Regulation of places for disposal of dead bodies.
13. Registration of births and deaths.
14. Vaccination and inoculation.
15. Prevention of water pollution in the city area and air pollution from poisonous gases in industrial area within the city.
16. Publication of annual reports and returns on administration of the corporation.
17. Demolition of dangerous buildings.
18. The naming and numbering of streets and premises.
19. The maintenance of Municipal Offices.
20. The maintenance and development of the value of all properties vested in or interested to the management of the Corporation.
21. To undertake the tasks of slum clearance and rehabilitation of slum dwellers.

Discretionary Functions:

1. Construction of public parks, gardens, libraries, museums, theatres etc.
2. The construction and maintenance of rest houses, poor houses, children’s home, houses for the deaf and dumb and for disabled and handicapped children, shelters for destitutes and disabled persons.
3. Relief to destitute and disabled persons.
4. Planting and care of trees on road sides and elsewhere.
5. Civic reception of V.I.Ps.
6. Registration of marriages.
7. Survey of buildings and lands.
8. Organisation and management of fairs and exhibitions.
9. Playing of music for masses.
10. Opening of orphan houses.
11. Destruction or detention of mad dogs, ownerless dogs etc.
12. The organisation, construction, maintenance and management of swimming pools, public wash houses and bathing places.
13. The construction and maintenance of cattle ponds.
14. The organisation and management of cottage industries, handicraft centres and sales emporium.
15. The establisment and maintenance of veterinary hospitals.
16. The establishment and maintenance of hospitals, dispensaries and maternity and child welfare centres and the carrying out of other measures necessary for public medical relief.
17. The improvement of the city in accordance with improvement schemes approved by the corporation.
18. The construction and maintenance of ware houses and godowns.

Sources of Income:
Following are the sources of income of Municipal Corporation:

1. Water tax
2. Sanitary tax.
3. Taxes for the consumption of electricity
4. Property tax
5. Theatre tax
6. Tax on vehicles and animals
7. Professional tax
8. Entertainment tax
9. Tax on deeds of transfer of immovable property.
10. Betterment tax.
11. Advertisement tax
12. Grants-in-aid from the government.

Question 11.
Write down the functions and sources of Income of Municipal Council/Committee.
Or
Explain the composition and functions of Municipal Council.
Answer:
Municipal Committee or Council is the most important institution of urban government. The Municipal Committees are governed by the Municipal Acts of the states.

Composition:
The membership of the Municipal Committee is fixed by the state government on the basis of the population of the city. In U.P. the total members of the Municipal Committees vary from 20 to 45 according to population. Members of the Municipal Committee are elected on the basis of adult franchise. Every adult citizen who lives within the Municipal jurisdiction has the right to vote.

There is a provision for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the same proportion to the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in that Municipality, as the population of the Scheduled castes, in the Municipal area according to 74th Amendment. In Punjab, 50% seats are reserved for women in Municipality. One seat is reserved for the Backward classes. All members of the Legislative Assembly of the state representing constituencies comprising wholly or partly the Municipal area are members of the Municipal Committee.

Qualifications:
Only that person can contest the Municipal elections who possesses the following qualifications:

• He should be a citizen of India.
• He should have completed 21 years of age.
• He should not hold any office of profit under the government or a Municipal Committee.
• He should be a resident of that city and his name should exist in the voters’ list of that area.

Tenure:
Before 74th Amendment, the tenure of Municipal Committee varied from three to five years. In Punjab and Haryana the tenure of Municipality is five years. The government can suspend or supersede the Municipal Committee even before the expiry of its term and can appoint an administrator to run the municipal administration.

President:
The members of the Municipal Committee elect a President from among themselves. The members of the Municipal Committee can remove the President from office by a majority vote. There are two Vice-Presidents of the Municipal Committee the Senior Vice-President and the Junior Vice-President.

Secretary:
There is a Secretary of the Municipal Committee who is given a fixed salary. He runs the day-to-day administration of the Municipal Committee. He is appointed by the Municipal Committee. In some Municipal Committees there is an Executive Officer instead of a

Secretary:
Besides this, there are many permanent officials in the Municipal Committee. For example, the Engineer, Health Officer, Sanitary Inspector and Octroi Inspector etc.

Functions of the Municipal Committee:
The local bodies run the administration of local affairs. The Municipal Committee is to perform the following functions:

1. Sanitation:
The municipal administration is to look after the sanitary condition of the city. It is to ensure that the public roads are properly swept, cleaned and watered. Suitable arrangements are made for drainage and conservancy. For discharge of these functions a Municipality maintains sanitary staff under a Chief Sanitary Inspector. The Municipalities have also the power to examine and approve the plans of houses proposed to be built in the town. It sees that houses are built according to scientific and sanitary principles. It is the fundamental duty of the Municipal Committee to look after the sanitary conditions of the city.

2. Public Health:
The preservation of public health is a very important function of the Municipal Committee. The Municipal Committee makes arrangements for giving injection of small pox to the people. Functions performed by it are establishment and maintenance of hospitals and dispensaries, vaccination, prevention of the outbreak of diseases, provision of public lavatories, prevention of the sale of adulterated food stuffs, provision of maternity and child welfare facility etc. Every Municipality runs a medical department under the charge of a Health Officer.

3. Roads and Bridges:
It makes arrangements for the construction of roads and bridges within its area. Pucca roads are constructed in the bazaars and the streets. It also gets the roads and the bridges repaired whenever necessary. It provides every facility to the people for the purpose of movement.

4. Education:
The Municipal Committee also makes arrangements for providing education to the people. The establishment and maintenance of primary schools is one of the most important function of the Municipalities. Many Municipalities run colleges also. Reading rooms and libraries are also opened by the Municipal Committees. The Committees also give financial aid to the privately managed schools. Adult Education Centres are also opened by the Municipalities for educating the adults.

5. Water and Electricity:
It is another important function of the Municipal Committee to make arrangement of pure drinking water of the area. Previously the Municipal Committees used to dig wells for this purpose but now water is supplied in the houses of the people. Arrangement of water pumps is made in streets, bazaars and on public places. The municipality also makes arrangement of providing street lights. The arrangement of supply of electricity now-a-days is made by the State Government, but previously the Municipal Committee used to do all this.

6. Transport:
People experience great difficulty in big cities in going from one place to other. The Municipal Committee makes arrangement of tramways to remove this difficulty of the public. It issues licences to rickshaws, tongas and auto-rickshaws.

7. Other Functions:

• The Municipal Committee makes arrangements for cremation grounds,
• It makes arrangements for extinguishing the fire and maintains fire brigade stations for this purpose,
• It makes arrangements for killing the mad dogs and wild animals,
• It makes arrangements for playgrounds, parks and gardens,
• It approves plans for constructing houses,
• In big cities it makes arrangements for providing pure milk, vegetable oil and butter to the people,
• It also pays attention to the recreational activities of the people and makes arrangements for fairs, exhibitions and games for the people.

Sources of Income;
The Municipal Committee requires a huge sum of money for the performance of its functions. It gets the money from the sources given below:
1. Octroi:
The main source of the income of a Municipal Committee is the octroi tax. This tax is imposed on all those things which come to the city from the village. This tax is imposed only upon those things about which the Municipality already decided. The rate of octroi tax is different on different things.

2. House Tax: The Municipal Committee imposes house tax on all the houses in its jurisdiction.

3. Licence Fees:
The Municipality imposes tax on the possession of certain things, for example, tonga, cycle, rickshaw, tempo and other vehicles. The Committee issues licences to this effect.

4. Toll Tax: In certain cities a tax is imposed on the use of a bridge or a stream. Such tax is very much imposed in Uttar Pradesh.

5. Water and Electricity Tax:
The Municipal Committee makes arrangements for the supply of water and electricity in the streets and bazaars and for this purpose it imposes water and electricity tax on the owners of the house. It charges separately for the consumption of water and electricity in homes.

6. Professional Tax: It imposes tax on trade professions in its jurisdiction.

7. Entertainment: The Municipal Committee imposes tax on theatres, cinemas and wrestling matches.

8. Tax on Animals: It imposes tax on the possession of animals by the people.

9. Income from its Property: The Municipal Committee has its own property also which is given on rent. The rent from property is a great source of income.

10. Grants-in-aid from the State Government:
The income of the Municipal Committee is not enough by which all its needs can be satisfied. Every year the State Government gives grants-in-aid to the Municipal Committees.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of Panchayati Raj System.
Or
What do you understand by Panchayati Raj?
Answer:
Panchayati Raj may be described as a complex system of rural local self-government in India. Panchayati Raj is that system of administration in which the village people are given the right to manage their own local affairs and to satisfy their needs themselves. The villagers use this right through the Panchayats and it is called Panchayati Raj. The three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj is working in India.

Question 2.
Describe three tier system of Panchayati Raj as provided under the Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994.
Or
Write down the composition of Panchayati Raj System in India.
Answer:
The Panchayati Raj system as recommended by Balwant Rai Mehta Committee has been organised on a three-tier structure : Gram Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the Block level and Zila Parishad at the district level. In Punjab and Haryana, Panchayati Raj is organised on three-tier basis. In Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad are directly elected. But there are some states where Panchayati Raj is organised on two-tier basis. States with less than 20 lakh j population have been given the option to set up or not to set up Panchayat Samiti.

Question 3.
Explain the composition of Village Panchayat.
Or
Describe the composition of Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Both in Punjab and Haryana, Panchayats have been established in all the villages whose population is five hundred or more than this. In Punjab, if the population of a village is less than 200 then a joint Panchayat of two villages is established. The size of the membership of the Gram Panchayat varies from 5 to 31. In Haryana, membership of the Panchayat is between 6 and 20 while in Punjab it is between 5 and 13.

The membership of a Panchayat is fixed on the basis of the population of the village. In Punjab if the population of a village is between 200 to 1000 then the number of Panches is five ; if the population is between 5000 to 10,000 then number of Panches is eleven and if the population is more than 10,000 then the number of Panches is thirteen. There is a provision for the reservation of seats for scheduled castes and backward classes in proportion to their population in the Gram Panchayat. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women.

Question 4.
What is Gram Sabha?
Or
Write down the composition of Gram Sabha.
Answer:
The state govt, may by notification establish a Gram Sabha by name for every area declared as Gram Sabha area. The Gram Sabha is the general body consisting of all the voters residing in the Gram Sabha area. The Gram Sabha elects a Gram Pradhan for five years. Gram Pradhan is also a Sarpanch of the Gram Panchayat. Every Gram Sabha holds two general meetings in each year, one in the month of December and another in the month of June. The Gram Sabha approves annual budget and plan of development programme and it renders assistance in the implementation of development schemes pertaining to the village.

Question 5.
How is Panch elected?
Answer:
Panch is directly elected by the members of the Gram Sabha by secret ballot. Every adult who is a resident of the village has got the right to vote in the Panchayat election. Any voter who is 21 years of age or more can contest the election and become a Panch.

Question 6.
How is Sarpanch elected?
Answer:
Sarpanch is the head of the gram panchayat. In Punjab Sarpanch is elected directly by the voters.

Question 7.
Who is the Head (Sabhapati) of Gram Panchayat? Write his three functions.
Answer:
Gram Pradhan or Sarpanch is the head of the Gram Panchayat. According to 73rd amendment in all states Sarpanch is directly elected by all the members of the Gram Sabha. In Punjab Sarpanch is elected for a period of five years. Following are the main functions of a Sarpanch :

• The Sarpanch is responsible for convening the meetings of the Gram Sabha and presides over its meetings.
• The Sarpanch is responsible for convening the meetings of the Gram Panchayat and presides over 1 its meetings.
• The Sarpanch is responsible for the maintenance of the records of the Gram Panchayat.
• The Sarpanch has the general responsibility for the financial and executive administration of the Gram Panchayat.

Question 8.
Describe any four sources of income of Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of Gram Panchayat:

• Taxes: In most of the states, Gram Panchayats have been empowered to levy a number of taxes optional or compulsory.
• Fees and Fines: In almost all the states, Panchayats are authorised to impose certain types of fees, fines or penalties.
• Grants and Contributions: In all the states, Gram Panchayats depend heavily upon the grants from the state governments. Panchayats having other but very poor sources almost totally depend upon grants.
• It can get fees for use of rest-houses.

Question 9.
Write four sources of income of Panchayat Samiti.
Answer:
Panchayat Samiti, generally, collects the money by way of taxes, fees, grants and contributions and some other minor sources.

1. Taxes: A Panchayat Samiti in Punjab and Haryana can levy any tax which the legislature of the state has power to impose under the Constitution of India.
2. Local Rate: In Punjab the most important source of income of the Panchayat Samitis is the local rate. It is a cess levied on land at the rate of 25 paise per rupee of annual value.
3. Fees: In Punjab and Haryana, a Panchayat Samiti may levy fees, with the previous permission of Zila Parishad and Deputy Commissioner respectively and subject to the general direction and control by the government.
4. All rents and profits occurring from property vested in or managed by the Panchayat Samiti.

Question 10.
Write any four public functions of a Gram Panchayat.
Or
Describe any four functions of Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of the Village Panchayat:
1. Village Panchayat maintains peace and order in the village. It helps the police in the prevention of crimes and the arrest of criminals.

2. It makes efforts for improving the health of the people, and for this purpose it opens hospitals and dispensaries. It also establishes child-welfare and maternity centres. It makes arrangements for giving small pox and cholera injections to the people.

3. It constructs, repairs and maintains public wells, ponds and tanks. It makes arrangements for drinking water and for pouring medicine into the wells, tanks etc.

4. It constructs and maintains streets, roads and bridges in the village.

Question 11.
Write any four functions of Panchayat Samiti.
Or
Mention three important functions of Block Samiti.
Answer:
The Panchayat Samiti performs the following functions:
1. The Panchayat Samiti looks after the working of Panchayats in its area.

2. It tries to promote agriculture in its area and distributes among the farmers good seeds, fertilizers and scientific instruments. It makes propaganda of scientific methods of agriculture among the farmers. It advances loans to the farmers for the promotion of agricultural production. It tries to make better arrangements for irrigation in its areas.

3. It makes sanitary arrangement in its area. It takes steps for improving the health of the people. It opens hospitals, child-welfare centres and maternity centres.

4. Panchayat Samiti promotes Co-operative activities.

Question 12.
Discuss the composition of a Panchayat Samiti.
Answer:
In Punjab, a Panchayat Samiti consists of the following types of members :

• Six to ten directly elected members from territorial constituencies in the Panchayat Samiti area.
• Representatives of the Sarpanches are directly elected by them from amongst the Sarpanches of the Gram Panchayats in the Panchayat Samiti area.
• Members of the Legislative Assembly of the state whose constituency falls in the Panchayat Samiti area.
• Members of the Legislative Council, who are registered as electors within the Panchayat Samiti area.
• There is a provision for the reservation of seats for scheduled castes and backward classes in proportion to their population in the Panchayat Samiti area. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women.

Question 13
What is Panchayat Samiti?
Answer:
The intermediate tier in the Panchayati Raj System is known in several states as the Panchayat Samiti. In Punjab each block has a Block Samiti known as Panchayat Samiti. According to Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 every Panchayat Samiti consists of 6 to 10 members. The Panchayat Samitis are expected to help in the execution of development programmes, encourage agriculture and small scale industry.

Question 14.
Write the composition of Zila Parishad.
Answer:
In Punjab, Zila Parishad comprises the following categories of members :

• The members directly elected from territorial constituencies in the district, each constituency electing one member.
• All Chairmen of Panchayat Samitis.
• Members of the Lok Sabha and members of the State Legislative Assembly representing a part or whole of the district.
• Members of the Rajya Sabha and members of the State Legislative Council, who are registered as voters within the district.In every Zila Parishad seats are reserved for scheduled castes, backward classes and women. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women.

Question 15.
Write down the four weaknesses of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:

• The majority of the villagers are uneducated and most of the members of a Village Panchayat are also uneducated.
• The government exercises a greater degree of control in the working of Panchayats, Panchayat Samitis and Zila Parishads.
• The Panchayati Raj institutions do not have sufficient funds to meet their needs.
• Due to poverty and unemployment people do not take interest in their local problems.

Question 16.
Give any four changes incorporated in the Panchayati Raj Act to improve the Panchayati Raj.
Answer:
73rd constitutional amendment has incorporated the following three important provisions in the constitution to improve the Panchayati Raj :
1. Direct Election of the Members:
According to 73rd amendment all members of the Gram Panchayat are directly elected by the voters of the Gram Sabha. For this purpose the territorial area of each Gram Panchayat is divided into territorial constituencies—and one member is elected from each constituency.

2. Tenure of Panchayat:
According to 73rd Amendment Act, the tenure of Panchayats in all the states is 5 years. If a Panchayat is dissolved or superseded before the expiry of its tenure, it is obligatory to hold election within six months.

3. State Election Commission:
For the supervision, superintendence and control of election staff of Panchayati Raj institutions, provision for the establishment of independent election commission at the state level has been made.

4. The members of the Panchayati Raj Institutions should be given proper training so that they become conversant with their duties and responsibilities.

Question 17.
Write down the importance of Panchayati Raj in India.
Answer:
According to Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, Panchayati Raj is a new revolution which will help in the building of a new India.

1. People’s Raj: The most important thing about the Panchayati Raj is that it is the people’s raj. People’s administration has been established in the villages.
2. Direct Democracy: Panchayati Raj is not in any way less than the establishment of a democratic government in the village. The villagers themselves control the administration of their village.
3. Self-sufficiency: Panchayati Raj aims at making every village self-dependent for the purpose of making and executing its development plAnswer: The Panchayati Raj institutions make people self-dependent and self-reliant.
4. Panchayati Raj helps in the development of the spirit of self-confidence among the people.

Question 18.
Mention three methods to remove the defects of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:
1. Education: The spread of education is most essential for making the Panchayati Raj System a success.

2. Autonomy: The Panchayati Raj institutions should be given more independence and autonomy in the discharge of their duties.

3. More Financial Aid:
The Panchayati Raj institutions always run short of funds. The government should give liberal financial aid to these institutions. Efforts should be done to make these institutions quite independent of the financial aid of the government.

4. Training for the members. To make Panchayati Raj successful it is essential that the members of the Panchayati Raj institutions should be given proper training so that they become conversant with their duties and responsibilities.

Question 19.
Write any four functions of Zila Parishad.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of Zila Parishad:

1. A Zila Parishad keeps a watch on the working of Panchayat Samitis in its area. It tries to co-ordinate the working of Panchayat and Panchayat Samitis in the district.
2. The Panchayat Samitis pass their annual budget and send it to the Zila Parishad. The Zila Parishad gives its approval to the budget after considering it thoroughly.
3. If two or more than two villages have a common project, the Zila Parishad tries to co-ordinate their working and helps in making the plan a success.
4. It can give suggestions to the government regarding the development of villages.

Question 20.
Who can contest election to a Municipality?
Answer:
Only that person can contest the Municipal elections who possesses the following qualifications :

• He should be a citizen of India.
• He should have completed 21 years of age.
• He should not hold any office of profit.
• He should be a resident of that city and his name should exist in the voters’ list of the area.

Question 21.
Give the composition of a Municipal Committee.
Or
Write down the composition of Municipal Council.
Answer:
The membership of the Municipal Committee is fixed by the state government on the basis of the population of the city. The total number of members of the Municipal Committees varies from 5 to 50 according to population. Members of the Municipal Committee are elected on the basis of adult franchise. Every adult citizen who lives within the Municipal jurisdiction has the right to vote. There is a provision for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women. There is also a provision for the election of Aldermen. The Aldermen are elected by the elected members and ex-officio members.

Question 22.
Describe any four sources of income of a Municipal Committee.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of a Municipal Committee :

1. Octroi: The main source of income of a Municipal Committee is the octroi tax.
2. House Tax: The Municipal Committee imposes house tax on all the houses in its jurisdiction.
3. Licence Fees: The Municipality imposes tax on the possession of certain things, for example, tonga, rickshaw, tempo and other vehicles. The Committee issues licences to this effect.
4. Toll Tax: In certain cities a tax is imposed on the use of a bridge or a stream.

Question 23.
Mention any four important functions of a Municipality.
Answer:

• The Municipal Committee is responsible for sanitary conditions of the city. It is the function of the Committee to see that public roads are properly swept, cleaned and watered.
• The Municipal Committee makes arrangements for the construction of roads and bridges within its area.
• The Municipal Committee makes provisions for the supply of clean drinking water in its area.
• The Minicipal committee also makes arrangements for providing education to the people.

Question 24.
Who is the Mayor? Write down the role of Mayor in a Corporation.
Or
Who is Mayor? How Mayor of Municipal Corporation is elected?
Answer:
Mayor is the political executive of the Municipal Corporation. In the first meeting of the corporation, Mayor is elected for five years from among the members of the corporation. The Mayor is honoured as the first citizen of the city. He presides over the meetings of the corporation and maintains order in the meeting. He has access to all the records of the Corporation.

He is the proper channel of communication between the commissioner and the state government. Members of the Municipal Corporation can remove the Mayor by passing a resolution to that effect by two third majority. If Mayor does not perform his duties in a proper manner or abuses his powers, then the state government has the right to remove him from office before the expiry of his term.

Question 25.
Explain the local bodies of Urban areas.
Answer:
In order to bring about uniformity in constituting Urban Local Bodies three tier structure of Urban Local Bodies has been envisaged under Article 243 of the Constitution inserted by the Constitution Amendment Act of 1992. These Urban Local Bodies are:

• Nagar Panchayat for a transitional area.
• Municipal Council for a smaller urban area.
• Municipal Corporation for a larger urban area.

Question 26.
What is called Corporation?
Answer:
The term Corporation means the complete entity which embraces both deliberative and executive wings. Municipal Corporation is the topmost of urban local government. It is the topmost, not in the sense that it exercises control over other forms of urban local bodies. The municipal corporation as an institution is more respectable and enjoys more autonomy than other forms of urban local bodies. A Municipal Corporation is set up under a special statute passed by the state legislature, except in Delhi. Municipal Corporation is meant for bigger towns where civil problems acquire a high degree of complexity.

Question 27.
Explain the composition of a Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
Organisation of Municipal Corporation in different cities is not the same. The members of the Municipal Corporation called councillors are elected directly on the basis of adult franchise. The government determines the number of elected councillors for a corporation. But the total number of elected councillors shall in no case be less than forty and more than seventy. The number of elected councillors of the corporation of Amritsar is sixty and Ludhiana is seventy.

All members of the Legislative Assembly of the state representing constituencies comprising wholly or partly the Municipal Corporation are ex-officio members of the Municipal Corporation. In every corporation seats are reserved for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Two seats in each corporation are reserved for members of the Backward Classes. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women. The tenure of the Municipal Corporation is five years. If Municipal Corporation is dissolved earlier then election must be held within six months.

Question 28.
Mention any three sources of income of Municipal Corporation.
Or
Write any four important sources of income of Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of Municipal Corporation:

1. Water Tax
2. Sanitary Tax.
3. Taxes for consumption of electricity
4. Property Tax
5. Theatre Tax
6. Tax on vehicles and animals.

Question 29.
Write down the names of urban local bodies.
Answer:
The names of urban local bodies are as under:

1. Municipal Corporation
2. Municipal Council
3. Municipal Committee
4. Cantonment Board
5. Improvement Trust
6. Port Trust.

Question 30.
What is City Improvement Trust? Explain its functions in brief.
Or
What do you mean by Improvement Trust and what are its functions?
Answer:
Improvement Trust is an urban local body established in big cities. Some members of the Improvement Trust are elected by Municipal Committee and some are nominated by state government. The Chairman of Improvement Trust is nominated by the government. He is also the executive of the Improvement Trust. He has the power to appoint certain employees drawing salary below a particular limit. He also executes the decisions taken by the Improvement Trust. The main purpose of this body is to improve the condition of the city. For this purpose this body plans for new colonies, opens up the congested areas, makes bye-laws etc. The Improvement Trust also has some sources of income. State government has the right to control this body.

Question 31.
Write down any four objectives of Panchayati Raj.
Answer:
Following are the main objectives of the Panchayati Raj System:

• To strengthen the democracy at grass-root level.
• To encourage the spirit of community development and self-reliance among the villagers.
• To provide opportunities to the villagers to solve their problems themselves.
• To promote mutual harmony among the people at village level.

Question 32.
What is Cantonment Board?
Or
What is Cantonment Board? How is it working?
Or
Write a note on Cantonment Board.
Answer:
Cantonment Board is always established in military area. It is formed for the fulfilment of different necessary needs of military personnel. Contonment Board is under the supervision of Command Officer of army. Fifty percent members of Cantonment Board are appointed or nominated and rest fifty percent are elected by the people of military area. Cantonment Board facilitates water-supply, education, health, cleanliness, electricity services etc. for the people of military area.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by Panchayati Raj?
Answer:
Panchayati Raj may be described as a complex system of rural local self-government in India. Panchayati Raj is that system of administration in which the village people are given the right to manage their own local affairs and to satisfy their needs themselves.

Question 2.
Describe the composition of Village Panchayat.
Answer:
Both in Punjab and Haryana, Panchayats have been established in all the villages whose population is five hundred or more than this. In Punjab, if the population of a village is less than 200 then a joint Panchayat of two villages is established. The size of the membership of the Gram Panchayat varies from 5 to 31.

Question 3.
What is Gram Sabha?
Answer:
The Gram Sabha is the general body consisting of all the voters residing in the Gram Sabha area. The Gram Sabha elects a Gram Pradhan for five years. Gram Pradhan is also a Sarpanch of the Gram Panchayat. Every Gram Sabha holds two general meetings in each year, one in the month of December and another in the month of June.

Question 4.
How is Panch elected?
Answer:
Panch is directly elected by the members of the Gram Sabha by secret ballot. Every adult who is a resident of the village has got the right to vote in the Panchayat election. Any voter who is 21 years of age or more can contest the election and become a Panch.

Question 5.
How is Sarpanch elected?
Answer:
Sarpanch is the head of the gram panchayat. In Punjab state Sarpanch is elected directly by the voters.

Question 6.
0Which part and which schedule is incorporated in Indian Constitution for the establishment of rural self government?
Answer:
Part-IX and schedule 11th is incorporated in Indian Constitution for the establishment of rural self government.

Question 7.
Describe any three sources of income of Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of Gram Panchayat :

1. Taxes: In most of the states, Gram Panchayats have been empowered to levy a number of taxes—optional or compulsory.
2. Fees and Fines: In almost all the states, Panchayats are authorised to impose certain types of fees, fines or penalties.

Question 8.
Mention any two sources of income of Panchayat Samiti.
Answer:
Panchayat Samiti, generally, collects the money by way of taxes, fees, grants and contributions and some other minor sources.

1. Taxes: A Panchayat Samiti in Punjab and Haryana can levy any tax which the legislature of the state has power to impose under the Constitution of India.
2. Local Rate: In Punjab the most important source of income of the Panchayat Samitis is the local rate. It is acess levied on land at the rate of 25 paise per rupee of annual value.

Question 9.
Write down any two functions of Gram Panchayat.
Or
Describe any two common functions of Panchayats.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of the Village Panchayat:
1. Village Panchayat maintains peace and order in the village. It helps the police in the prevention of crimes and the arrest of criminals.

2. It makes efforts for improving the health of the people, and for this purpose it opens hospitals and dispensaries. It also establishes child-welfare and maternity centres. It makes arrangements for giving small pox and cholera injections to the people.

Question 10.
Write any two functions of Panchayat Samiti.
Answer:
The Panchayat Samiti performs the following functions:
1. The Panchayat Samiti looks after the working of Panchayats in its area.

2. It tries to promote agriculture in its area and distributes among the farmers good seeds, fertilizers and scientific instruments. It makes propaganda of scientific methods of agriculture among the farmers. It advances loans to the farmers for the promotion of agricultural production. It tries to make better arrangements for irrigation in its areas.

Question 11
What is Panchayat Samiti?
Answer:
The intermediate tier in the Panchayati Raj System is known in several states as the Panchayat Samiti. In Punjab each block has a Block Samiti known as Panchayat Samiti. According to Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 every Panchayat Samiti consists of 6 to 10 members.

Question 12.
What are the aims of Panchayati Raj?
Answer:

• The aim of Panchayati Raj is to establish true democracy in rural areas.
• Socio-economic development of rural India is the main aim of Panchayati Raj.

Question 13.
Mention any two weaknesses of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:

• The majority of the villagers are uneducated and most of the members of a Village Panchayat are also uneducated.
• The government exercises a greater degree of control on the working of Panchayats, Panchayat Samitis and Zila Parishads.

Question 14.
Give any two changes incorporated in the Panchayati Raj Act to improve the Panchayati Raj.
Answer:

1. Direct Election of the Members: According to 73rd Amendment, all members of the Gram Panchayat are directly elected by the voters of the Gram Sabha.
2. Tenure of Panchayat: According to 73rd Amendment Act, the tenure of Panchayats in all the states is 5 years. If a Panchayat is dissolved or superseded before the expiry of its tenure, it is obligatory to hold election within six months.

Question 15.
Write down the importance of Panchayati Raj in India.
Answer:

1. People’s Raj: The most important thing about the Panchayati Raj is that it is the people’s raj. People’s administration has been established in the villages.
2. Direct Democracy: Panchayati Raj is not in any way less than the establishment of a democratic government in the village. The villagers themselves control the administration of their village.

Question 16.
Write down any two methods to remove the defects of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:

• Education: The spread of education is most essential for making the Panchayati Raj System a success.
• Autonomy: The Panchayati Raj institutions should be given more independence and autonomy in the discharge of their duties.

Question 17.
Mention any two functions of the Zila Parishad.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of Zila Parishad:

1. A Zila Parishad keeps a watch on the working of Panchayat Samitis in its area. It tries to co-ordinate the working of Panchayat and Panchayat Samitis in the district.
2. The Panchayat Samitis pass their annual budget and send it to the Zila Parishad. The Zila Parishad gives its approval to the budget after considering it thoroughly.

Question 18.
Who can contest election to a Municipality?
Answer:
Only that person can contest the Municipal election who possesses the following qualifications:

• He should be a citizen of India.
• He should have completed 21 years of age.

Question 19.
Discuss the composition of a Municipal Committee.
Answer:
The membership of the Municipal Committee is fixed by the state government on the basis of the population of the city. The total number of members of the Municipal Committees varies from 5 to 50 according to population. Members of the Municipal Committee are elected on the basis of adult franchise. Every adult citizen who fives within the Municipal jurisdiction has the right to vote. There is a provision for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes.

Question 20.
Which part and which shedule is incorporated in Indian Constitution for the establishment of urban local self government?
Answer:
Part-IX-A and Schedule 12th is incorporated in Indian Constitution for the establishment of urban local self government.

Question 21.
Write down any two sources of income of a Municipal Committee.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of a Municipal Committee:

• Octroi: The main source of income of a Municipal Committee is the octroi tax.
• House Tax: The Municipal Committee imposes house tax on all the houses in its jurisdiction.

Question 22.
Mention any two important functions of a Municipality.
Answer:

• The Municipal Committee is responsible for sanitary conditions of the city. It is the function of the Committee to see that public roads are properly swept, cleaned and watered.
• The Municipal Committee makes arrangements for the construction of roads and bridges within its area.

Question 23.
Who is Mayor?
Answer:
Mayor is the political executive of the Municipal Corporation. In the first meeting of the Corporation, Mayor is elected for five years from among the members of the Corporation. The Mayor is honoured as the first citizen of the city. He presides over the meetings of the Corporation and maintains order in the meeting. He has access to all the records of the Corporation.

Question 24.
Explain the composition of a Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
The members of the Municipal Corporation called councillors are elected directly on the basis of adult franchise. The government determines the number of elected councillors for a Corporation. All members of the Legislative Assembly of the state representing constituencies comprising wholly or partly the Municipal Corporation are ex-officio members of the Municipal Corporation. In every Corporation seats are reserved for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

Question 25.
Describe the sources of income of Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of Municipal Corporation:

1. Water Tax
2. Sanitary Tax
3. Taxes for consumption of electricity
4. Property Tax

Question 26.
Write the names of institutions (Bodies) under urban self government.
Answer:
The names of urban local bodies are as under:

1. Municipal Corporation
2. Municipal Council
3. Municipal Committee
4. Cantonment Board
5. Improvement Trust
6. Port Trust.

Question 27.
What do you mean by improvement trust and what are its functions?
Answer:
Improvement Trust is an urban local body established in big cities. Some members of the Improvement Trust are elected by Municipal Committee and some are nominated by state government. The chairman of Improvement Trust is nominated by the government.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Who is considered the father of local self-government in India?
Answer:
Lord Ripon is the father of local self-government in India.

Question 2.
What do you mean by ‘Nyaya Panchayat’? Mention its function.
Answer:
The Nyaya Panchayat is a Judicial Panchayat. Its main objective is to provide a speedy and inexpensive system of justice to the people of rural areas.

Question 3.
Give any one function of a Zila Parishad.
Answer:
It examines and approves the budget of Panchayat Samitis.

Question 4.
What are grass root organisations?
Answer:
Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad are the grass root organisations.

Question 5.
Namy two local self-governing institutions in the urban area.
Answer:

• • Municipal Corporation.
  • Municipal Committee.

Question 6.
Who is the Chairman of Municipal Corporation?
Answer:
Mayor is the Chairman of the Municipal Corporation.

Question 7.
Who is the head of a Municipal Corporation? What is his normal term of office?
Answer:
The head of the Corporation is Mayor or Mahapour. The normal term of his office is five years.

Question 8.
By what name is the elected head of a Municipal Corporation known?
Answer:
The elected head of a Municipal Corporation is known as Mayor of the Corporation.

Question 9.
Who is the elected head of a city Corporation?
Answer:
The elected head of a city Corporation is generally known as Mayor.

Question 10.
Mention any one function of Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
Municipal Corporation makes arrangement for the supply of pure and wholesome water and maintenance of water works.

Question 11.
Write the name of top and bottom level of Institution under Punjab Panchayati Raj.
Answer:

• Top Level Institution – Zila Parishad.
• Bottom Level Institution – Gram Sabha.

Question 12.
How is the Municipal Corporation formed?
Answer:
The Municipal Corporation is set up under a special statute passed by the State Legislature. Its members are elected by the people on the basis of the principle of adult franchise.

Question 13.
How are the members of a Corporation elected?
Answer:
The members of a Corporation are elected directly by the people of the city on the basis of the principle of adult suffrage. Apart from the Councillors, some Corporations have Aldermen also who are elected by the Councillors.

Fill in The Blanks

1. Sh …………….. had recommended the three tier Panchayati Raj.
Answer:
Balwant Rai Mehta

2. 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments give the …………….. status to local bodies institutions.
Answer:
Constitutional

3. Local Self-government is a …………….. subject.
Answer:
state

4. Tenure of Municipality is …………….. years.
Answer:
five years

5. Highest unit of Urban Local bodies is …………….. .
Answer:
Municipal Corporation

6. Tenure of Gram Panchayat is …………….. years.
Answer:
five.

True or False Statement

1. There should be centralization for the offective governance.
Answer:
False

2. 73rd Constitutional Amendment defines the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
True

3. There is a Five Tier Panchayati Raj system according to 73rd Amendment.
Answer:
False

4. Municipality is the supreme unit of urban local bodies.
Answer:
False

5. Local bodies institutions do not have enough funds to meet their needs.
Answer:
True

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
The new urban local self government system was introduced:
(a) by 71st Constitutional Amendment
(b) by 73rd Constitutional Amendment
(c) by 61st Constitutional Amendment
(d) by 74th Constitutional Amendment.
Answer:
(d) by 74th Constitutional Amendment.

Question 2.
Which constitutional amendment was passed for rural local self government?
(a) 8th
(b) 11th
(c) 73rd
(d) 85th.
Answer:
(c) 73rd

Question 3.
For whom are the seats reserved under 73rd Amendment regarding rural democracy?
(a) Only for ladies
(b) Only for scheduled castes
(c) Only for children
(d) For ladies and scheduled castes.
Answer:
(d) For ladies and scheduled castes.

Question 4.
Which of the following is not an institution of rural Local Government?
(a) Panchayats
(b) Zila Parishad
(c) Muncipal Corporation
(d) Gram Sabha.
Answer:
(c) Muncipal Corporation

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 9 Indian Democracy: Problems and Challenges Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 9 Indian Democracy: Problems and Challenges

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by Parliamentary system? Explain any four features of a Parliamentary System of Government.
Or
What is Parliamentary System? Discuss its essential features.
Answer:
What is a Parliamentary form of government? Parliamentary type of government is also called Cabinet government or Responsible government. In this form of government there is a nominal head of the State and all executive powers are exercised by a Cabinet of ministers. These ministers are usually members of the legislature. They are individually and collectively responsible to the legislature for their action and policies. They attend the meetings of the legislature and answer the questions put to them by the members of the legislature.

If the legislature passes a vote of no-confidence against them, they resign their offices. Other members who possess the confidence of the legislature are then appointed as ministers. The members of the Cabinet are usually selected from among the legislators or the party or parties which command a majority in the legislature. Each minister is incharge of one or more departments.

Garner observes, “Cabinet government is that system in which the real executive the Cabinet or Ministry is immediately and legally responsible to the legislature or one branch of it. (usually the more popular chamber) for its legislative and administrative act and ultimately or politically responsible to the electorate, while the titular or nominal executive the chief of the State occupies a position of irresponsibility.

Parliamentary system had its origin in Britain and now most of the countries have adopted it. India, England, Canada, Denmark, Australia, Belgium, Japan, Bangla Desh and so many other countries have adopted parliamentary form of government.

Features of Parliamentary Government:
The important features of Parliamentary government are as follows:
1. Head of the State is a Nominal Executive:
There is a titular executive head of the state either elected for a definite time or a hereditary monarch. Almost all the executive powers of the government are vested with the head of the State but it is only in theory and in practice all these powers are exercised by the real executive. The nominal head of the State always acts on the advice of the council of ministers. The head of the State cannot do anything at his own initiative. In fact, it is the council of ministers which exercises the power of the head of the State. The head of the State cannot do anything without taking the council of ministers into confidence.

2. Close Relationship between Executive and Legislature:
There exists a close relationship between the Cabinet and the Legislature. All the members of the cabinet are the members of the legislatures. They attend the meetings of the legislature and answer questions put to them by the members of the legislature. If an outsider is oppointed a minister he must become the member of the legislature within a definite period otherwise he ceases to be the member of the council of ministers. The ministers pilot the bills and see that they are passed. They are legislators as well as administrators.

3. Responsibility of the Cabinet:
The responsibility of the Cabinet means that so long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature, it remains in power. Whenever the majority party is turned into minority or a vote of no-confidence or a vote of censure is passed against the government, it must go out and give place to the party which can then command majority. The council of ministers always acts in accordance with the wishes of the legislature.

4. Tenure of the Cabinet is not fixed:
The tenure of the council of ministers is not definite. They can remain in office till the legislature wishes them to remain in office. The legislature can remove the members of the council of ministers from their office. If the majority of the members of the legislature passes a vote of no-confidence against the cabinet, then cabinet will have to resign.

5. Leadership of the Prime Minister:
In parliamentary system, Cabinet works under the leadership of the Prime Minister. Leader of the majority party in the Lower Chamber is appointed as the Prime Minister of the country and all other ministers are appointed by him. The head of the State neither appoints ministers of his own accord nor he can ask them to quit the office. The Prime Minister selects his colleagues from among the members of his party and the President approves them. He forms the Cabinet, he can alter it, he can destroy it altogether. If he resigns, the whole Council of Ministers goes out of office. He summons the meetings of the Cabinet and presides over them. He can ask any minister to resign.

6. Political Homogeneity:
Cabinet works as a unit. But it can work as a unit only when all ministers in the Council of Ministers are taken from the single political party. The Prime Minister includes all the “big guns’ of his party in the Council of Ministers. .

7. Secrecy:
Proceedings of the Cabinet are confidential. No minister can give publicity to the proceedings of the Cabinet. The decision of the Cabinet can be disclosed only by a minister authorised by the Prime Minister. At the time of the assumption of the office, every minister takes the oath of secrecy.

8. Dissolution of the Lower House:
One of the important features of the Indian and British parliamentary government is the right of the council of ministers to dissolve the Lower House of the Parliament.

Question 2.
Explain any six characteristics of Parliamentary Governing System in India.
Or
What is Parliamentary form of Government? Explain any four characteristics of Indian Parliamentary Government in detail.
Answer:
Meaning of Parliamentary form of Government:
What is a Parliamentary form of government? Parliamentary type of government is also called Cabinet government or Responsible government. In this form of government there is a nominal head of the State and all executive powers are exercised by a Cabinet of ministers. These ministers are usually members of the legislature. They are individually and collectively responsible to the legislature for their action and policies. They attend the meetings of the legislature and answer the questions put to them by the members of the legislature.

If the legislature passes a vote of no-confidence against them, they resign their offices. Other members who possess the confidence of the legislature are then appointed as ministers. The members of the Cabinet are usually selected from among the legislators or the party or parties which command a majority in the legislature. Each minister is incharge of one or more departments.

Garner observes, “Cabinet government is that system in which the real executive the Cabinet or Ministry is immediately and legally responsible to the legislature or one branch of it. (usually the more popular chamber) for its legislative and administrative act and ultimately or politically responsible to the electorate, while the titular or nominal executive the chief of the State occupies a position of irresponsibility.

Parliamentary system had its origin in Britain and now most of the countries have adopted it. India, England, Canada, Denmark, Australia, Belgium, Japan, Bangla Desh and so many other countries have adopted parliamentary form of government.

Features of Parliamentary Government:
The important features of Parliamentary government are as follows:
1. Head of the State is a Nominal Executive:
There is a titular executive head of the state either elected for a definite time or a hereditary monarch. Almost all the executive powers of the government are vested with the head of the State but it is only in theory and in practice all these powers are exercised by the real executive. The nominal head of the State always acts on the advice of the council of ministers. The head of the State cannot do anything at his own initiative. In fact, it is the council of ministers which exercises the power of the head of the State. The head of the State cannot do anything without taking the council of ministers into confidence.

2. Close Relationship between Executive and Legislature:
There exists a close relationship between the Cabinet and the Legislature. All the members of the cabinet are the members of the legislatures. They attend the meetings of the legislature and answer questions put to them by the members of the legislature. If an outsider is oppointed a minister he must become the member of the legislature within a definite period otherwise he ceases to be the member of the council of ministers. The ministers pilot the bills and see that they are passed. They are legislators as well as administrators.

3. Responsibility of the Cabinet:
The responsibility of the Cabinet means that so long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature, it remains in power. Whenever the majority party is turned into minority or a vote of no-confidence or a vote of censure is passed against the government, it must go out and give place to the party which can then command majority. The council of ministers always acts in accordance with the wishes of the legislature.

4. Tenure of the Cabinet is not fixed:
The tenure of the council of ministers is not definite. They can remain in office till the legislature wishes them to remain in office. The legislature can remove the members of the council of ministers from their office. If the majority of the members of the legislature passes a vote of no-confidence against the cabinet, then cabinet will have to resign.

5. Leadership of the Prime Minister:
In parliamentary system, Cabinet works under the leadership of the Prime Minister. Leader of the majority party in the Lower Chamber is appointed as the Prime Minister of the country and all other ministers are appointed by him. The head of the State neither appoints ministers of his own accord nor he can ask them to quit the office. The Prime Minister selects his colleagues from among the members of his party and the President approves them. He forms the Cabinet, he can alter it, he can destroy it altogether. If he resigns, the whole Council of Ministers goes out of office. He summons the meetings of the Cabinet and presides over them. He can ask any minister to resign.

6. Political Homogeneity:
Cabinet works as a unit. But it can work as a unit only when all ministers in the Council of Ministers are taken from the single political party. The Prime Minister includes all the “big guns’ of his party in the Council of Ministers.

7. Secrecy:
Proceedings of the Cabinet are confidential. No minister can give publicity to the proceedings of the Cabinet. The decision of the Cabinet can be disclosed only by a minister authorised by the Prime Minister. At the time of the assumption of the office, every minister takes the oath of secrecy.

8. Dissolution of the Lower House:
One of the important features of the Indian and British parliamentary government is the right of the council of ministers to dissolve the Lower House of the Parliament.

Features of Indian Parliamentary Government:
Following are the features of Indian Parliamentary System or democracy:
1. Distinction between the Real and the Nominal Executive:
It is the first characteristic of Indian Parliamentary System that it recognises a distinction between the real and the nominal executive. Indian President is only a nominal head, while Council of Ministers is the real executive. No doubt he has been vested with many powers and is empowered to use them in person or through officials subordinate to him. Theory is, however, not practice. He does nothing by doing everything. It is the Cabinet which exercises the powers given to the President. Under the Constitution, he has the right to be informed about the decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation.

He may even exercise his influence over the decisions of the Council of Ministers. But it should be understood that influence is not power. To what extent he can influence the policy of the Cabinet depends upon his personality and his relations, particularly with the Prime Minister. According to 42nd Amendment, President is bound by the advice of the Council of Ministers. But according to 44th Amendment bill, the President may require the Council of Ministers to reconsider any advice tendered by them and that the President shall act in acccordance with the advice tendered after such reconsideration.

2. President remains outside the Cabinet:
Another feature of Indian Parliamentary System is that the President is not a part of the Cabinet and remains outside it. President cannot attend the meetings of the Cabinet. He is only informed of the decisions taken in the meeting.

3. Close relation between the Executive and Legislature:
The Indian Parliamentary System, works on the principle of close relationship between the executive and legislature. On the one hand, in India, the Ministers are entrusted with a portfolio and on the other they are members of either House of Parliament. According to the provision of the Constitution, the President may appoint a person as a Minister for six months even if he is not a member of either House.

Such a Minister will have to quit office if during the period of six months he has not been able to become a member of either House. A minister can be taken from either House the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha. The Cabinet is the connecting link between the executive and the legislature. A Minister, under the Cabinet form of Government, works in a dual capacity.

He is in-charge of one of the departments of the Government. He also shares in the law-making function. Each Minister has a right to sit in either House and take part in its discussions. He can vote in a House of which he is a member. Since each Minister holds charge of a particular department, therefore, he is responsible for the efficient conduct of that department. He is responsible for the acts of his subordinates. He cannot escape responsibility.

4. Leadership of the Prime Minister:
The Council of Ministers is headed by the Prime Minister and not by the President. The President appoints the Prime Minister and, on the advice of the Prime Minister, other ministers are appointed. The Ministers are, thus, the nominees of the Prime Minister and not of the President. Whatever the prejudices of the President, he must accept and endorse the list prepared by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is a team and plays the game of politics under the captaincy of the Prime Minister. Rightly, it has been said that “Government is the master of the Country and Prime Minister is the master of the Government.”

He forms the Cabinet, he can alter it or he can destroy it altogether. He summons the meetings of the Cabinet and presides over them. He exercises complete control over the agenda of the Cabinet. It is he who distributes portfolios among his colleagues. He can re-allocate departments among his colleagues any time he wishes. He can ask any Minister to resign. He can get him dismissed from office by the President.

If a Minister is unable to accept the lead or policy of the Prime Minister it is the Minister who will go. The Prime Minister is the connecting link between the President and the Cabinet. He is also the link between the Council of Ministers and the Parliament. Equally, he is the link between Parliament and the people. The decisions of the Council of Ministers are communicated to the President by the Prime Minister. It is his constitutional right as well as duty.

5. Political Homogeneity:
Another feature of the Indian Parliamentary Government is that the Cabinet is formed on the basis of Political Homogeneity. It works as a unit. However, it can work as a unit only when all ministers in the Council of Ministers are taken from a single political party. The leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha is appointed the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister includes all the big guns of his party in the Council of Ministers. For the efficient working and success of the Cabinet form of Government it is essential that all the ministers in the Council of Ministers must be drawn from a single political party. It is only in this way that the unity of purpose and unity of thought of the Cabinet can be maintained.

Political homogeneity does not mean that the Prime Minister cannot go out of the party rank. To the advantage of the nation or the expediency of his party, he may appoint a person as minister not belonging to his own party. Moreover when coalition government is formed then ministers are taken from the partners of the coalition government.

6. Unity of the Cabinet:
“Cabinet is a unit a unit as regards the sovereign and a unit as regards the legislature.” It means the cabinet is a team. All the ministers come and go together, they stand and fall together. In the meeting of the Cabinet, the Ministers have the right to express their opinions and views freely. But once the Cabinet takes a decision, it commits every minister. Whatever opinion they might have expressed in the meeting of the Cabinet, the decision of the Cabinet is the decision of the whole Council of Ministers.

Every Minister has to support that decision though personally he might have been opposed to it. A Minister, not agreeable to the decision of the Cabinet, must quit. Though all the Ministers do not take part in the formulation of the policy, yet it binds every Minister. Under the Cabinet Government, the ministers are responsible not only for the conduct of their department but also for the policy and performance of all departments of Government. Mistakes committed by one minister may cause the fall of the whole Government.

7. Secrecy:
Proceedings of the Cabinet are confidential; they are not meant for public consumption. No minister can give publicity to the proceedings of the Cabinet. The decision of the Cabinet can be disclosed only by a Minister authorised by the Prime Minister. A minister who indulges in loose talk may invite punishment for himself. At the time of the assumption of the office every minister takes the oath of secrecy.

But from the point of view of efficient administration as well as from the point of unity of the Cabinet, it is imperative that discussion of the Cabinet should not leak out. Otherwise mutual confidence shall not be attained. When a minister resigns on a difference of opinion, under Rule 218 of the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Parliament, he can make a personal explanation to the House without raising a debate.

8. Responsibility of the Cabinet:
The Council of Ministers is responsible to Parliament for its actions and policies. The ministers are required to answer to questions put to them in either House. The Council of Ministers has no fixed term of office. It remains in office so long as it enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha can oust the Council of Ministers from office by passing a resolution of no-confidence in the Council of Ministers by rejecting a Money Bill or rejecting a Government Bill. The members of Parliament can put the Government in the dock by putting questions, supplementaries, adjournment motions, call attentions, etc.

According to the Constitution, the responsibility of the Council of Ministers is collective. As said earlier, collective responsibility means that ministers are responsible for the efficient performance of the department allotted to them as well as for the policy and performance of all departments of Government. No-confidence in one minister means no-confidence in the whole of the Council of Ministers.

9. No fixed term of the Cabinet:
It is another feature of Indian Parliamentary Government that the Cabinet has no fixed tenure. It remains in office only during the pleasure of the Parliament. Only that party which has an absolute majority in the Lok Sabha is asked to form ministry and so long it retains its majority it remains in office. The Cabinet with a majority support cannot be voted out. It is only when the Cabinet loses its majority in the Lok Sabha that it has to resign. Thus the executive depends upon the will of the legislation for its office.

10. Dissolution of the Lok Sabha:
Another important feature of Indian Parliamentary Government is the right of the Prime Minister to dissolve the Lok Sabha. In Dec., 1970, President V.V. Giri dissolved the Lok Sabha on the advice of Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi. In January, 1977, President Ahmed also dissolved the Lok Sabha on the advice of Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi. Similarly, on 6 Feb. 2004, President Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam dissolved the Lok Sabha on the advice of Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee.

Question 3.
Briefly discuss various social and economic factors conditioning Indian democracy.
Or
Examine the social factors which affect the Indian Democracy.
Answer:
Democracy has been adopted in India and every effort has been made to strengthen it. In the preamble India is declared ‘A Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic.’ In the preamble it is mentioned that the aim of the Constitution is to provide social, economic and political justice to all citizens. Adult franchise is introduced in India. In April-May 2019, the number of voters in the election of the 17th Lok Sabha were 90 crores.

The Part III of the Constitution describes Fundamental Rights of the citizens. In Part IV of the Constitution, Directive Principles are mentioned so that economic democracy can be established in India. It has been tried in the Constitution to establish a system of ideal democracy in principle. But in practice, Indian democracy is suffering from various social and economic evils which have proved a curse. These evils are as under:
1. Social and Economic Inequality.
2. Poverty.
3. Illiteracy.
4. Unemployment.
5. Casteism.
6. Untouchability.
7. Communalism.
8. Regional Imbalances.
9. Feudal Values.
10. Social Tension and Violence.

1. Social and Economic Inequality:
To make democracy a success, social and economic equality is essential, social and economic inequality is still found here. All the citizens of society are not treated equally and they are discriminated on the basis of caste, colour, creed and sex. Economic inequality • also exists in India. Some people in India are millionaires while millions don’t get two square meals-a day. People cannot use their rights properly because of social and economic inequality.

2. Poverty:
Most of the people in India are poor. A poor citizen can neither use his rights to vote independently nor can he contest elections.

3. Illiteracy:
About 35 percent of the people in India are illiterate. An illiterate person can neither understand his rights and duties properly nor can he co-operate in solving the problems confronting the country. An illiterate person can’t use his right to vote.

4. Unemployment:
Thousands of educated and uneducated people are unemployed in India. They remain indifferent to democracy and do not take interest in elections.

5. Casteism:
Though all the political parties speak against casteism yet in practice it plays an important role in politics. All the parties give importance to caste in the selection of party candidates in elections and even the voters think in terms of caste while casting their votes.

6. Untouchability:
Though Constitution has abolished untouchability, yet it is prevalent in practice. Atrocities against the Harijans are still committed.

7. Communalism:
Communalism is the greatest hurdle in the success of democracy. The communal feelings lead to clashes which threaten national integrity. Several communal riots took place in India during 1990-91 and in Dec., 1992-93.

8. Regional Imbalances:
India is a vast country and people belonging to various religions and castes live here. Many regions in the country are developed while others are underdeveloped. The standard of living of the people of Himachal Pradesh, U.P., Bihar, Assam and Nagaland is very low than the people of Punjab and Haryana. The regional feeling and regional imbalances pose a great threat to democracy.

9. Feudal Values:
Feudal values still exist in India. Feudal system is traditional and orthodox in which social and economic equality are least important. The members of Indian Administrative Services consider themselves superior to other citizens. The elected representatives and ministers are also victims of feudalism. Rajputs, Thakurs and other people of high castes living in villages hate HarijAnswer: Thus feudal values are antidemocratic.

10. Social Tension and Violence:
Social co-operation and peace are essential for democracy. But in India social tension and violence always exist in one part of the country or the other because of economic inequality and regional feelings.

Conclusion:
If future of Indian democracy is not dark, it is also not very bright. The above mentioned social and economic evils are to be eradicated to brighten the future of democracy.

Question 4.
Write a short note, indicating three main causes of illiteracy in India. Also explain the impact of illiteracy on democracy.
Answer:
Illiteracy is a curse. That person is called illiterate who cannot read or write at all. At the time of independence only 14 per cent people in India were literate. But the progress in literacy is miserably slow. Even today, only about 65 percent people are literate. Illiteracy is widespread among women. Following are the main causes for the illiteracy in India:
1. Poverty:
Poverty is the main cause of illiteracy. According to an estimate 20 to 25 percent people of India are living below the poverty line. During 1990-91 about two crore people were unable to get two square meals a day. It is not possible for a poor man to send his children to school.

2. Over Population:
Over population is another cause of illiteracy. There were about 30 crore people in India after independence. At present population of India is more than 130 crores. Thus, on an average more than one crore people increase every year. It is not possible for an under-developed country like India to provide education to such a huge population.

3. Agricultural country:
India is mainly an agricultural country and more than 70 percent people are dependent on agriculture. Farmers instead of sending their children to school, prefer to send them to the farm.

4. Orthodox customs:
In Indian society, there are many orthodox customs, like spending money on marriages and mundan and other religious ceremonies. Big amount of money is spent on the ceremonies connected with death. Illiterate people spend their money on these orthodox customs and do not realise the importance of literacy in life. Orthodox parents borrow money for the marriage of their daughter and do not prefer to educate her. Thus, illiterate mothers give birth to illiterate society due to orthodox customs.

5. Lack of sufficient funds:
espite the fact that a large number of professional institutions have been set up after independence, still there is lack of sufficient funds to fight a battle against illiteracy. Government is unable to open school in every village and give free primary education. In remote villages, people do not have sources to literate their wards due to inadequate facilities of education.

Impact of Illiteracy on Democracy:
Education is the very basis of good life and it is all dark in the absence of literacy. Democracy survives on the basis of the support from rational minded citizens and rational minded intelligent citizens are prepared through education. But in India seventy per cent people are illiterate. Our survey has established the fact that half of the eighty crores of illiterate people of the world live in India. According to official statistics, about 10 crore of people are illiterate from 15 to 35 years of age.

An uneducated person lacks confidence and possesses no capacity to understand and solve the problems facing the country. He can neither understand his rights nor duties. He can’t safeguard his rights if they are encroached upon unreasonably and at the same time he can’t perform his duties properly. Besides this, an illiterate person has a narrow outlook towards life and believes in casteism, communalism and regionalism.

Because of illiteracy of Indian provincialism, casteism and communalism are widespread in the country these days. In democracy, only public opinion can control the unreasonable tendencies of the government and only out of the fear of unfavourable public opinion the government frames policies for public welfare. But in India, healthy public opinion can’t be developed because of illiteracy.
The ruling party too exploits this weakness of the masses and does not bother to fulfil its promises it held out to the people at the time of elections. An uneducated individual is fascinated by the catching slogans pertaining to religion, caste, language and casts his vote accordingly. So the masses in India should be literate and alert for the success of democracy.

Question 5.
Explain the impact of casteism on Indian Democracy.
Or
Write a short note on casteism in India.
Answer:
Casteism is vital and integral part of Indian society and it has immensely influenced Indian politics. Casteism is still prevalent in Indian society and former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi has expressed deep concern over the rising number of caste-disputes. The politics of all the states in India suffers from the abuse of casteism. Prof. Morris Jones has rightly pointed out that the prominent leaders of the country may raise catching slogans of casteless society, but the new voters of rural areas are acquainted only with casteism. Democracy is deeply affected by casteism in India. The following are ways of casteism:

1. Generally the candidates are selected for election only on the basis of caste. In the election of 2019 almost all the political parties selected their candidates on the basis of caste.
2. Election propaganda is also carried out on the basis of caste.
3. The voters usually cast votes in favour of candidate of their caste.
4. Caste factor is very important in the formation of government.
5. Caste considerations are determining policies and decisions at the national level. Sometimes caste interest gets priority and national interests are ignored.
6. Casteism has led to violence and extremism in Indian politics. There are clashes between the Brahmins and the Sudras, the Shias and the Sunnis weakening of foundation of democracy.

The basis of caste in elections must be removed to make democracy successful in India. Following steps should be taken to eliminate this factor:

• The names of educational institutions referring to castes should be given up.
• All the political parties should decide to discourage casteism.
• The political parties based on caste should be removed from political horizon.
• The facilities provided by government on the basis of caste should be immediately stopped.

Question 6.
Examine the five adverse effects of Communalism on the democratic system of India.
Or
Write a short note on Communalism.
Answer:
Communalism is a legacy of British rule in India. Britishers followed the policy of divide and rule. They introduced Communal Suffrage in 1909. Communalism means discriminatory feelings of an individual against others on the basis of caste and religion. Religion has always influenced Indian politics. Narrow outlook towards religion turned Indian politics into an arena of communal riots before independence.

Hindus and Muslims kept on fighting in the name of religion and it ultimately resulted into India’s partition. But this partition couldn’t eliminate communalism and communal disharmony is growing strong again. In recent years, religious fundamentalism and fanaticism have raised their head again, leading to religious intolerance, riots, ill-will, hatred and even violence. Communalism has affected Indian polices in the following ways:
1. Several political parties in India have been formed on the basis of religion.

2. Communal feelings play a vital role in elections. Generally speaking, almost all the political parties nominate their candidates on the basis of caste and community. This communal basis aims at mustering maximum votes of same caste.

3. Not only political parties but voters are also influenced by religion while casting their votes. Usually, the Muslim or Sikh voters vote in
favour of the candidates belonging to their religion.

4. Communal riots and political clashes take place in the name of religion. About 304 communal riots took place in 1979-80. On Dec. 6, 1992 the three domes of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya were destroyed. There was a country¬wide rioting and within days the rioting left over 1200 dead and 5000 wounded.

Question 7.
Discuss the role of regionalism in Indian Politics.
Or
‘Regionalism is a curse.’ How can it be curbed? Give any four suggestions.
Answer:
Regionalism has played a very important role in Indian politics. Role of Regionalism in politics can be proved thus-
1. The states bargain with the Central Government on the basis of regionalism at times for economic development and to solve many other problems. Haryana state came into being owing to such pressures.

2. The political parties strengthen their stand by sticking to regionalism. The Akali Dal in Punjab and Dravida Munnetra Kazgham in Tamil Nadu turned out to be powerful on the basis of regionalism.

3. The members of cabinet work for the development of their own regions to have their stronghold in future. Shri Bansi Lai did wonders in Bhiwani and Shri Sukhadia dedicated his powers to the development of Udaipur.

4. Regionalism is widely talked of even in elections. The political parties select their candidates on the basis of regionalism and they again try to get votes by provoking the regional sentiments of the people.

5. Regionalism, to some extent, has inflamed violent activities in Indian politics. Some political parties make it a medium of their popularity.

6. Regional tendencies are fully exhibited in the formation of Cabinets. Representatives of different regions quite often are inducted into the cabinet.

In fact, the solution to the problem of regionalism doesn’t lie in the formation of small states, but it depends upon economic development of backward areas, elimination of corruption and to work for the welfare of people.

Regionalism is a curse:
Regionalism has enormously affected Indian politics and democracy. In fact regionalism is a curse because people are so much dominated by regional and provincial sentiments that they are ready to sacrifice national interests for the sake of regional or provincial welfare. Various regional movements have been launched from time to time for secession from Indian Union. Many selfish politicians raised the bogey of a demand for separate statehood in different parts of the country from time to time.

Suggestions to Check Regionalism:

• Progress of Different States: Attempt should be made to have balanced progress of all the States in India.
• Spread of Right Type of Education: In school and colleges such type of education should be imparted which promotes national feelings.
• Secular Politics: Politics should be kept free from the influence of language, caste, religion and region.
• Strict Action: Activities and movements of regionalism and separatists should be curbed by force.
• Minorities’ Interest: Minorities’ interest should be protected and their grievances should be redressed.

Question 8.
What do you understand by Separatism? Describe the causes of emergence of separatism in India.
Answer:
India is a country of diversities. People of different religions, castes, values, customs reside here. They have their different cultures, language and socio-economic status. These diversities lead to separatism. Separatism means to secede from the country and become an independent state. Separatism is an extreme form of regionalism. Following are the reasons that cause separatism in India:
1. Geographical and Cultural Causes:
After independence the states were reorganised on the basis of old boundaries and so the people living in one state couldn’t develop the feeling of oneness. Generally, language and culture lead to regional sentiments. The inhabitants of Tamil Nadu consider their language and culture to be superior to Indian culture. They are very critical of Rama and Ramayan and burnt effigies of Rama and Lakshaman in 1975. They demanded secession from Indian Union in 1960 only on this basis.

2. Historical Causes:
History has contributed to the origin of regionalism doubly i. e. positively and negatively. Origin of Shiv Sena is a proof of positive contribution and Dravida Munnetra Kazgham a negative one.

3. Language:
Norman D. Palmer believes that much of the politics concerns the question of regionalism and language. He opines that problem of regionalism is candidly connected with language. India is a multi-lingual country and people speaking various languages initiated intense movements for separate states. Indian Government, by organising states on linguistic basis, has created a never ending problem.

4. Caste:
Caste, too, has, contributed significantly to the origin of regionalism. Domination of a single caste at a place leads to violent form of regionalism. That is why regionalism is at its worst in Haryana and Maharashtra and is absent in Uttar Pradesh.

5. Religious Causes:
Religion, at times, heightens regionalism. The Akalis’ demand for ‘Punjabi Suba’ was largely the result of religious influence.

6. Economic Causes:
Economic causes play a vital role in the origin of regionalism. There has been an unequal economic development in India because individuals in power paid attention to the development of their own regions. Therefore people belonging to backward areas inspired for power to make some development. So the feeling of regionalism originated and they demanded separate states.

7. Political Causes:
The politicians have a hand in inflaming regional feelings among the people. The politicians think in terms of grabbing power to satisfy their political ambitions in case their areas are declared separate states.

Question 9.
What are the factors responsible for emergence of violence? What threat it poses to democracy?
Answer:
The phenomenon of violence in our country has been widespread for a long time. Violence is a threat to Indian democracy. Communalism, casteism, linguism and separatist tendencies all account for growing violence in our society.
Factors Responsible for emergence of violence. Many factors collectively worked in the favour of violence. The reasons for the emergence of violence are as following:
1. Caste:
Caste system has divided society in many groups. The tendency of upper and lower caste leads to violence. There are clashes between the Brahmins and Shudras, the Shias and the Sunnis. Caste wars have taken a heavy toll on lives in the states of Bihar, Rajasthan, Haryana and Tamil Nadu etc. In December, 1997 the Ranveer Sena, a private army of upper caste Landowners killed about one hundred Dalits at Lakshmanpur in Bihar.

2. Separatist Elements:
Various separatist elements encourage violence. They follow the path of violence and kill innocent people. Pak inspired separatist elements such as Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, Hurriyat Conference, Lashkar-e- Toiba etc. are very active in Kashmir.

3. Linguism: Linguism also causes violence. People of South India opposed Hindi as a national language. This dispute leads to violence.

4. Communalism:
Various communal differences lead to violence. In Meerut, Muradabad, Indore occassionally communal differences has caused violence. Communal riots are encouraged by the political parties.

5. Linguistic State:
The demand of linguistic state leads to violence. In 1952, Telugu speaking people demanded for a separate state. In 1966 Punjab and Haryana were divided on the basis of language.

6. Political Power:
Politics is the root cause of violence. The tendencies such as communalism, Linguism, separatism, casteism are all encouraged by politics. Political leaders for their own personal reasons provoke violent tendencies. To get power they encourage communal wars, caste wars and linguistic wars. Thus, all the tendencies caused by politics encourage violence in society.

7. Terrorist gangs:
Various terrorist gangs are spreading violence in the country. To achieve their aims they kill people and thus encourage violence tendencies in society.

8. Illiteracy:
Violence is spreading because people in large number are illiterate. They are unable to understand the complicated problems of nation and unknowingly encourage violence.

9. Socio-Economic Reasons:
There is a great disparity among people on socio-economic basis. In India, on one hand exists highly influential and rich people and on the other hand poor and illiterate people. This socio-economic disparity causes violence, because to safeguard their existence the poor people adopt the way of violence.

Violence is a serious threat to Indian democracy. Violence weakens the foundation of democracy and gradually people are loosing faith in the constitutional methods which will be dangerous for democracy. Democracy can develop only in a peaceful atmosphere and if violence will remain in the society and people will do what¬ever they think beneficial for them then government will fail to give equal rights and liberty to the people. If government does so then it will be a failure of democracy because it is a system by and for the people.

Question 10.
Examine the different patterns of violence in India.
Or
Analyse the various forms of violence in Indian politics.
Or
To what extent the steps taken have been able to curb it?
Answer:
Violence is becoming a dominant aspect of political life of our country. Although the phenomenon of violence has been with us for long, the decade of the eighties has been quite dismal. By violence we mean the use of physical force including the deployment of bombs, arms, ammunition and other means of inflicting physical injury to human beings and destruction of property. In extreme form, violence may cause death of individuals, either targeted or totally unconnected with the perpetrators of violence. Destruction of property through arson, looting, bombing of buildings and installations etc., also forms part of physical violence.

Forms of violence. There are many forms of violence in India. Some of the major forms of violence are given below:
1. Caste Wars and Caste promoted violence:
In the early time Hindu society was divided into four major castes—Varnas. But with the passage of time four castes (Varnas) have been divided into hundreds of castes. Caste conflicts and caste violence are increasing day by day. Caste wars have often taken a heavy toll of lives in the states of Bihar, Southern part of Uttar Pradesh, Northern part of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Tamil Nadu etc. In December, 1997 the Ranveer Sena, a private army of upper caste landowners, killed about one hundred Dalits at Lakshmanpur in Bihar. There are many other Caste Senas in Bihar.

2. Inter-communal violence:
Inter-communal violence took its most horrible form at the time of partition of India in 1947. Inter-communal riots is increasing day-by-day and the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Kashmir etc. are prone to communal riots.

3. Violence by Terrorist Gangs:
Violence by terrorist organisations is increasing day-by-day. These days terrorist organisations are spreading violence for achieving different objectives in different parts of the country.

4. Violence by Separatist Elements:
Separatist elements follow the path of violence and they oppose the government weapons and killed innocent people. Pak inspired separatist elements have been very active in Punjab and Kashmir for the last many years, Jammu-Kashmir Liberation Front, Harkat-ul- Mujahidden, Lashkar-e-Toiba etc. are very active in Kashmir.

5. Violence by left Insurrectionary Elements:
The ultra-left elements Naxalite spread violence in West Bengal, Andhra, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.

6. Political Violence:
Though political violence has no place in democratic set up but selfish interest of politicians and political parties gave birth to political violence in the country. Political violence is used to achieve political objectives. The political violence is committed by organised gangs or adhoc groups to influence governmental decisions, to settle scores with political opponents and to ventilate the deep-rooted grievances.Violent activities of the north eastern states in India, violence due to the demand for the reorganisation of states etc. are the examples of the political violence.

7. Violence by Interest groups and Professional groups:
Strikes, demonstrations, Bandh etc. resorted to by pressure groups and professional unions sometimes take violent form.

8. Individual or Group Violence:
Individual or group violence committed for personal gains by the anti-social elements and goondas of the society are increasing day-by-day in many cities.

Methods to Curb Violence:
Violence like communalism, casteism, illiteracy, linguism, poverty etc. is an evil and is danger to democracy. The acts of violence are increasing day-by-day. Whatever the form or motive of violence may be, its use is vitiating the democratic atmosphere of our country. Because of the increasing role of violence in the political life of our country, it is generally felt that the politics of our country is being criminalised. In a system where violence prevails, there can be no social, economic and political reconstruction. There is a great need to curb violence because people are losing faith in the constitutional and peaceful methods which will be dangerous for democracy.

Government has enacted a number of laws to curb various types of violence in our country. There is no doubt that caste prompted violence has sufficiently been controlled but it has not been completely eliminated. Caste-wars often take place in various parts of the country and they disturb the democratic equilibrium in India. Same is the case with terrorist related violence. Militancy has been curbed in various parts of the country through different means but the government has failed to eliminate terrorist violence completely. The prevalent political, economic and social circumstances indicate the fact that violence in our country cannot be completely eliminated.

Question 11.
Write down about the problems and challenges to Indian Democracy.
Or
Discuss the main problems of Indian Democracy.
Or
Explain six weaknesses or defects of Parliamentary Democracy in India.
Answer:
No doubt the Constitution established a system of ideal democracy in principle. But in practice Indian democracy is suffering from various social, economic and political evils which have proved a curse. These evils are as under:
1. Social and Economic Inequality:
To make democracy a success social and economic equality is essential, social and economic inequality is still found here. All the citizens of society are not treated equally and they are discriminated on the basis of caste, colour, creed and sex. Economic inequality also exists in India. Some people in India are millionaires while millions don’t get two square meals a day. People cannot use their rights properly because of social and economic inequality.

2. Poverty:
Most of the people in India are poor. A poor citizen can neither use his right to vote independently nor can he contest elections.

3. Illiteracy:
Majority of the people in India are illiterate. An illiterate person can neither understand his rights and duties properly nor can he cooperate in solving the problems confronting the country. An illiterate person can’t use his right to vote properly.

4. Unemployment:
Thousands of educated and uneducated people are unemployed in India. They remain indifferent to democracy and do not take interest in elections.

5. Casteism:
Though all the political parties speak against casteism, yet in practice it plays an important role in politics. All the parties give importance to caste in the selection of party candidates in elections and even the voters think in terms of caste while casting their votes.

6. Communalism:
Communalism is the greatest hurdle in the success of democracy. The communal feeling leads to clashes which threaten national integrity. Several communal riots took place in India during 1992-93.

7. Regional Imbalances:
India is a vast country and people belonging to various religions and castes live here. Many regions in the country are developed while others are underdeveloped. The standard of living of the people of Himachal Pradesh. U.P., Bihar, Assam and Nagaland is very low than the people of Punjab and Haryana. The regional imbalances pose a great threat to democracy.

8. Feudal Values:
Feudal values still exist in India. Feudal system is traditional and orthodox in which social and economic equality are least important. The members of Indian Administrative Services consider themselves superior to other citizens. The elected representatives and ministers are also victims of feudalism. Rajputs, Thakurs and other people of high caste living in villages hate HarijAnswer: Thus feudal values are antidemocratic.

9. Social Tension and Violence:
Social co-operation and peace are essential for democracy. But in India social tension and violence always exist in one part of the country or the other because of economic inequality and regional feelings.

10. Multiple Party System:
Another defect of Indian democracy is the multiple party system. Election Commission recognised seven national political parties and 59 state level parties. Multiple party system poses a threat to Parliamentary form of Government as it endangers national unity. It is not possible to maintain national unity at a critical time because of numerous political parties.

11. Dominance of a Single Party:
Another important defect of Indian democracy is the dominance of Congress. The Congress secured 364, 371, 361 and 283 seats in the elections of 1952, 1957, 1962 and 1967 respectively. The Congress didn’t succeed much in states in the election of 1967, which resulted in the formation of non-Congress ministries in many states. But the non-Congress ministries didn’t avail of this golden opportunity and they
tried to achieve their vested interests instead of serving the people.

Consequently these ministries could not stay for long. Mrs. Indira Gandhi held mid-term poll in 1971 and Congress swept the elections and it secured 352 seats in Lok Sabha. Out of 19 States, elections were held in eight states and Congress secured majority in all the eight states. Due to the dominance of Congress party, some preceptive students of Indian politics have expressed the view that India has a ‘One party dominance system’ (Rajni Kothari) or ‘One dominant party system.’ (W.H. Morris Jones).

In 1977, with the formation of Janata Party, the monopoly of the Congress party ended for a short period. But in the elections of January 1980 and Dec. 1984, Congress (I) won big majority in the Lok Sabha. There was no official opposition in the Lok Sabha. But the dominance of Congress came to an end in November, 1989 when the Congress was badly mauled in the 9th General elections and the other parties entered the 9th Lok Sabha with sufficient strength. It was repeated from 1991 to 2019 elections of Lok Sabha. The present position clearly indicates that the era of one party dominant system has come to an end.

12. Lack of Effective Opposition: Another problem of Indian democracy is lack of organised opposition as it exists in England.

13. Less Contact with the Masses:
Another defect of Indian democracy is that the legislators do not maintain proper contact with the masses. The leaders of the political parties realise the importance of public contact during the elections but they forget it as soon as the elections end. According to Dr. P.V.C. Rao, no political party except Communist party claims to have direct contact with the masses.

14. Defections:
Indian democracy is known for defections. Defection is posing a threat to Parliamentary Democracy in India. There are many examples of defections from first to fourth general elections but the number of defections after the fourth general elections increased so much that parliamentary form of government seemed to be an utter failure in India.

Question 12.
Discuss the effects of violence and population explosion on Indian Democracy.
Answer:
1. Violence:
Though political violence has no place in democratic set up but selfish interest of politicians and political parties gave birth to political violence in the country. Political violence is used to achieve political objectives. The political violence is committeed by organised gangs or adhoc groups to influence governmental decisions, to settle scores with political opponents and to ventilate the deep-rooted grievances. Violent activities of the north eastern states in India, violence due to the demand for the reorganisation of states etc. are the examples of the political violence.

2. Population explosion:
Population explosion is another problem of Indian Democracy. There were about 30 crore people in India after independence. At present population of India is more than 130 crores. Thus, on an average more than one crore people increase every year. It is not possible for an under-developed country like India to provide education and food to such a huge population.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by Parliamentary government?
Answer:
In a parliamentary government there is a close relationship between the legislature and the executive. The Cabinet (Executive) is the real executive and it is responsible to the legislature for its functions and policies. The Cabinet can remain in office as long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature. If legislature passes a vote of no confidence then cabinet has to resign. Parliamentary government is also called responsible government because government is responsible to the legislature. It is also known as Cabinet form of government because in this form of government executive powers are exercised by the Cabinet.

Question 2.
Discuss any four characteristics of Parliamentary System.
Answer:
Following are the three main features of parliamentary government:
1. Head of the State is a Nominal Executive:
In a parliamentary form of government executive powers are vested with the Head of the State but it is only in theory and in practice all these powers are exercised by the real executive. Head of the State is a nominal head and he always acts on the advice of the council of ministers.

2. Close Relation between the Executive and the Legislature:
All members of the cabinet are the members of the legislature. They attend the meetings of the legislature and they answer those questions which are put to them by the members of the legislature.

3. Responsibility of the Cabinet:
Cabinet is collectively responsible to the legislature for its policies and functions. If a vote of no-confidence is passed by the legislature against the Cabinet then the Cabinet must resign.

4. The Council of Ministers is headed by the Prime Minister and not by the President.

Question 3.
Explain any four characteristics of a Parliamentary Government in India.
Answer:

1. President is only a nominal head whereas Prime Minister is the real head of the government. All the powers vested in the President are exercised by the council of ministers.
2. Another feature of Indian Parliamentary system is that the President is not a part of the cabinet and he remains outside it.
3. One more feature of Indian Parliamentary system is that the Cabinet has no fixed tenure.
4. In India Cabinet is collectively responsible to the Parliament.

Question 4.
Who is the Real Executive in India?
Answer:
Indian President is only a nominal head, while Council of Ministers is the real executive. It is the Cabinet which exercises the power given to the President. According to 42nd Amendment, President is bound by the advice of the Council of Ministers. But according to 44th Amendment, the President may require the Council of Ministers to reconsider any advice tendered by them and that the President shall act in accordance with the advice tendered after reconsideration.

Question 5.
Write down about Nominal Executive in India.
Answer:
Indian President is only a Nominal Executive head, while Council of Ministers is the real executive. No doubt, he has been vested with many powers and is empowered to use them in person or through officials subordinate to him. Theory is, however, not practice. He does nothing by doing everything. It is the Cabinet which exercises the powers given to the President.

Under the Constitution, he has the right to be informed about the decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation. He may even exercise his influence over the decision of the Council of Ministers but it should be understood that influence is not power. To what extent he can influence the policy of the Cabinet depends upon his personality and his relations, particularly with the Prime Minister.

Question 6.
Mention four demerits of Indian Parliamentary System.
Answer:
1. Multiple Party System:
For the success of parliamentary system two party system is the best. But in India multiple party system exists. Due to multi-party system coalition govt, and weak govt, is formed at the Centre.

2. Defections: Defection is another drawback of Indian Parliamentary System.

3. Indiscipline: Indiscipline among the members of Parliament is another demerit of the Indian parliamentary system.

4. Communalism is the greatest hurdle in the success of Indian Parliamentary system.

Question 7.
How does Economic inequality influence Indian Democracy?
Answer:
Economic inequality exists in India. Some people in India are millionaires while millions don’t get a square meal a day. A poor citizen can neither use his right to vote independently nor can he contest election. The poor man sells his vote. Poverty adversely affects working of democracy in India.

Question 8.
How has illiteracy affected Indian democracy?
Or
How does the illiteracy affect Indian Democracy?
Answer:
In India 47 per cent people are illiterate. One survey has established the fact that half of the eighty crore of illiterate people of the world lives in India. According to official statistics, about 10 crore of people are illiterate from 15 to 35 years of age. An uneducated person lacks confidence and possesses no capacity to understand and solve the problems facing the country. He can neither understand his rights nor duties.

He can’t safeguard his rights if they are encroached upon unreasonably and at the same time he can’t perform his duties properly. Besides this, an illiterate person has a narrow outlook towards life and believes in casteism, communalism and regionalism. Because of illiteracy of Indians, provincialism, casteism and communalism are widespread in the country these days.

Question 9.
Why is Communalism considered a serious problem for Indian Democracy?
Or
Write the effects of Communalism on Indian Democracy.
Answer:
Communalism has affected the Indian democracy in the following manner:

• Several political parties in India have been formed on the basis of religion.
• Communal feelings play a vital role in elections. Almost all the political parties field their candidates on the basis of caste and community.
• Voters are also influenced by religion while casting their votes. Generally the Muslim or Sikh voters vote in favour of the candidates belonging to their religion.
• Communal riots and political clashes take place in the name of religion.

Question 10.
How has poverty been a threat to the working of democracy in India?
Or
What is the impact of poverty on Indian Democracy?
Answer:
Working of Indian democracy has been adversely affected by poverty of the masses. The poor citizen cannot develop physically and mentally as he can’t get a square meal a day. He remains worried about earning his livelihood and has no time to think over the problems facing the country. A poor person does not even think about the elections. He can’t even use his right to vote independently. He can’t cast his vote against his employer. During elections the rich distribute blankets, cycles, sewing machines and other things among the poor so that they can get the votes of the poor. The poor person sells even his vote. Every political party tries to take political advantage of the people’s poverty.

Question 11.
What is the effect of casteism on Indian Democracy?
Or
How Casteism affects Indian democracy?
Answer:
Indian democracy is deeply affected by casteism. Casteism has affected the Indian democracy in the following ways:
1. Selection of Candidates on the basis of Caste:
Caste considerations are given great weight in the selection of candidates. Generally a candidate of that caste is fielded which dominates a particular constituency. All the political parties attach great importance to casteism while selecting their candidates in the general elections.

2. Election Propaganda:
Caste plays a vital role in election propaganda. Victory or defeat of a candidate largely depends upon caste based propaganda.

3. Casteism has led to violence and extremism.

4. Formation of Government: Caste plays a significant role even in the formation of government. Caste politics carries on its process in the formation of cabinet. Generally a state has its Chief Minister belonging to a caste enjoying majority in the state.

Question 12.
Mention four social, political factors which affect the Indian democracy.
Answer:

• Multi-Party System: In India Multi-Party System exists. Due to this, Government becomes unstable.
• Illiteracy: An illiterate person cannot use properly his right to vote.
• Casteism: The increasing role of casteism is polluting Indian Democracy.
• Unemployment: Unemployed people remain indifferent to democracy and do not take interest in election.

Question 13.
Which of the social factors influence Indian democracy?
Answer:
Indian democracy is suffering from various social evils which have proved a curse. These social evils are as under:

• • Social and economic inequality.
  • Illiteracy
  • Casteism.
  • Unemployment.

Question 14.
How do the prevailing social inequalities affect democracy in India?
Answer:

1. Social inequality has increased despair and discontent among the people. People of low castes many times demanded protection through movements. Women also held demonstrations to improve their social status.
2. The violent activities of the Naxalites were the result of social inequality.
3. The attitude of the people has become narrow because of social inequality. Every class thinks in terms of its own interest and not of national interest.
4. The upper castes have their monopoly established in administration.

Question 15.
Explain the meaning of the term ‘Regional Imbalance’ -and give any two causes thereof.
Answer:
Regional Imbalance means vast disparities in standard of living of people between one region and the other region. Following factors are responsible for Regional Imbalance:

• Benefits of planning do not reach every region.
• The geographical factors are also responsible for the backwardness of some regions.

Question 16.
Suggest any four measures to remove Regional Imbalance which you think can be implemented by the Govt, of India.
Answer:

• There is need of preparing different programmes for the development of different areas.
• Development programmes should be taken up with the support and cooperation of the people.
• Benefits of planning should reach every person and all areas.
• In school and colleges such type of education should be imparted which promotes national feelings.

Question 17.
Write about the hindrances which come in the way of success of Indian Parliamentary democracy.
Answer:

• Social and economic inequality is the major hindrance in the smooth functioning of democracy in India.
• Poverty is another hindrance. Most of the people in India are poor.
• Majority of the people in India are illiterate.
• The regional imbalances pose a great threat to democracy.

Question 18.
Give any three suggestions to solve the problems of Indian democracy.
Answer:

• • Economic inequality should be minimised.
  • Social equality should be established.
  • Illiteracy should be removed. Steps should be taken for mass education.
  • Democracy cannot flourish best without the freedom of press. The government should not impose restrictions on newspapers.

Question 19.
What is meant by Collective Responsibility under Parliamentary Government?
Or
What do you mean by Collective Responsibility?
Or
What do you mean by collective responsibility of executive in Indian Parliamentary System?
Answer:
In a parliamentary government the council of ministers is collectively responsible to the parliament for its actions and policies. Collective responsibility means that ministers are responsible for the efficient performance of the departments allotted to them as well as for the policy and performance of all departments of government. No confidence in one minister means no confidence in the whole of council of ministers.

The council of ministers works as a unit. All the ministers stand and fall together. The decisions of the cabinet are binding on all the ministers. It is immaterial even if any minister is opposed to the decision which has emerged at the cabinet meeting. No minister can run his department as he wishes. He must work in unity with his colleagues. It is the only way by which the principle of collective responsibility can be enforced.

Question 20.
Give economic factors influencing Indian Government.
Answer:
1. Majority of the people in India are poor:
Poor people are worried about their meals and have no time to think about the problems of the country. A poor person can neither contest election nor even vote independently. The poor man sells his vote. Poverty adversely affects the working of democracy in India.

2. In India more than 4 crore people are unemployed:
Unemployment has greatly affected Indian democracy. An unemployed person does not care for his rights and performance ‘of his duty. He readily even sells his vote.

3. Economic inequality is an important hinderance in the working of Indian democracy.

4. Some people in India are millionaires while millions do not get two square meals a day.

Question 21.
Describe the effects of unemployment on Indian democracy.
Answer:

1. Unemployed persons are so much involved in their own problems that they have no time to ponder over problems facing the society and the country.
2. An unemployed person does not care for his rights and performance of his duties. He readily sells even his vote.
3. The character of the citizens has also declined because of unemployment. It has resulted in dishonesty, corruption and theft. An unemployed person is prepared to resort to immoral means to get a job.
4. Unemployment has led to violence in Indian politics.

Question 22.
Write down three problems of Indian Democracy.
Or
Write down four main problems of Indian Democracy.
Answer:
1. Poverty:
Most of the people in India are poor. A poor citizen can neither use his right to vote independently nor can he contest election.

2. Dliteracy:
24% of Indian population in India is illiterate. An illiterate person can neither understand his rights and duties properly nor can he cooperate in solving the problems confronting the country. An illiterate person can’t use his right to vote.

3. Unemployment:
Thousands of educated and uneducated people are unemployed in India. They remain indifferent to democracy and do not take interest in elections.

4. Communalism:
Communalism is another problem of Indian democracy. The communal feelings lead to clashes which threaten National Integrity.

Question 23.
How do Regional imbalances affect Indian Polity? Explain.
Answer:
All the regions in India are not on equal footing, rather sharp diversities are found and hence the problem of regional imbalance exists. Regional imbalances have greatly affected Indian democracy.

• Regional imbalance creates a psychological tension among the people of different regions. People belonging to various regions develop an attitude of laying much stress on regional interests ignoring the national interest.
• Many political parties have been formed under the spell of regionalism.
• The voters cast their votes under the urge of regionalism and don’t bother about national interests.
• Regional imbalance creates tensions between centre and states.

Question 24.
Mention any three conditions essential for the success of Indian Democracy.
Or
Write down four conditions necessary for the success of democracy.
Answer:

• Enlightened citizenship is very essential to strengthen democratic traditions.
• Education is very essential to strengthen democratic traditions. Education makes people responsible and responsive.
• Political consciousness among the people is very essential for the success of democracy.
• Economic equality is very essential for the success of democracy.

Question 25.
What is meant by the term Political Homogeneity?
Answer:
Political Homogeneity is one of the important features of Parliamentary form of government. In Parliamentary form of government ministers are taken from that party which has majority in the Lower House of the Parliament. In this system all ministers work as a unit. Because they belong to a single party, so question of arising differences among members of the council of ministers is very nominal. Notable thing is that in a coalition government Political Homogeneity is not quite possible. That is why coalition governments are not stable.

Question 26.
How is linguism a danger to India?
Answer:
Linguism means the influence and impact of the factor of language. The factor of language has added another fissiparous tendency in the Indian body politic and it is influencing our democracy in the following ways:

• The factor of language is an emotive issue. Because of its emotional nature it has given rise to lingual fanaticism in some parts of our country.
• Linguism is a threat to unity of country.
• The opposition to Hindi as the official language of the Indian Union is causing bitterness between the Hindi and the non-Hindi speaking people of our country.
• The problem of language is responsible for the rise of regionalism in our country.

Question 27.
What is meant by ‘Regionalism’?
Answer:
Regionalism in the ordinary usage refers to particularism of regional patriotism. Regionalism is derived from the word ‘region’. A region is a homogeneous area with physical and cultural characteristics distinct from those of other areas. Whereas Communalism means the love of the Community in preference to nation, regionalism means the love of a particular region in preference to the country and in certain cases, in preference to the state of which the region is a part. This feeling may arise due to continuous neglect of the region by the ruling authorities. It may also spring up as a result of increasing political awareness of the henceforth backward people that they have so far been discriminated against.

Question 28.
How does regionalism come in the way of bringing about unity in diversity?
Answer:
Regionalism hampers the growth of unity in diversities in the following ways

1. It encourages the growth of fissiparous and divisive tendencies in the society and thus the cause of unity in diversities receives a serious setback.
2. Regional loyalties overwhelm individuals so much that they forget their obligation towards the nation as a whole and prefer their regional interests to national interests.
3. Regionalism sometimes takes the form of communalism or linguism which hampers the path of unity among diversities.
4. Regionalism, to some extent, has inflamed violent activities in Indian politics.

Question 29.
What are the two bases of separatist tendencies in India today?
Answer:
The bases of separatist tendencies in India are:
1. Communalism:
Communalism is the greatest hurdle in the success of democracy. The communal feelings lead to clashes which threaten national integrity. Religion has always influenced Indian politics.

2. Casteism:
Caste has always been a significant and decisive factor in Indian politics. Though all the political parties speak against casteism yet in practice it plays an important role in politics. All the parties give importance to caste in the selection of party candidates in elections and even the voters think in terms of caste while casting their votes.

Question 30.
Describe the impact of violence on Indian democracy.
Answer:
Violence is becoming a dominant aspect of political life of our country. Its effects on Indian democracy are:

1. The violent atmosphere stifles the voice of truth. Because of the fear of violence a great majority of political leaders even do not express the voice of their conscience.
2. The democractic institutions work under the fear of violence. Elections do take place but in many cases, the results thereof do not represent the real will of the voters.
3. Violence is a threat to Election Process also.
4. Political parties do not work independently, rather sometimes they are constrained to take decisions to appease the perpetrators of violence.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is Parliamentary model of government?
Answer:
In a parliamentary government there is a close relationship between the legislature and the executive. The Cabinet (Executive) is the real executive and it is responsible to the legislature for its functions and policies. The Cabinet can remain in office as long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature. If legislature passes a vote of no confidence then cabinet has to resign.

Question 2.
Discuss any two characteristics of Parliamentary System.
Answer:
Following are the three main features of parliamentary government:
1. Head of the State is a Nominal Executive:
In a parliamentary form of government executive powers are vested with the Head of the State but it is only in theory and in practice all these powers are exercised by the real executive. Head of the State is a nominal head and he always acts on the advice of the council of ministers.

2. Close Relation between the Executive and the Legislature:
All members of the cabinet are the members of the legislature. They attend the meetings of the legislature and they answer those questions which are put to them by the members of the legislature.

Question 3.
Discuss any two characteristics of a Parliamentary Government in India.
Answer:

1. 1. President is only a nominal head whereas Prime Minister is the real head of the government. All the powers vested in the President are exercised by the council of ministers.
   2. Another feature of Indian Parliamentary system is that the President is not a part of the cabinet and he remains outside it.

Question 4.
Write down about Nominal Executive in India.
Answer:
Indian President is only a Nominal Executive head, while Council of Ministers is the real executive. It is the Cabinet which exercises the powers given to the President. Under the Constitution, he has the right to be informed about the decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation.

Question 5.
Mention two demerits of Indian Parliamentary System.
Answer:

• Multiple Party System: For the success of parliamentary system two party system is the best. But in India multiple party system exists. Due to multi-party system coalition govt, and weak govt, is at the Centre.
• Defections: Defection is another drawback of Indian Parliamentary System.

Question 6.
How does economic inequality influence Indian Democracy?
Answer:
Economic inequality exists in India. Some people in India are millionaires while millions don’t get a square meal a day. A poor citizen can neither use his right to vote independently nor can he contest election. The poor man sells his vote. Poverty adversely affects working of democracy in India.

Question 7.
How has illiteracy affected Indian democracy?
Answer:
An uneducated person lacks confidence and possesses no capacity to under-stand and solve the problems facing the country. He can neither understand his rights nor duties. He can’t safeguard his rights if they are encroached upon unreasonably and at the same time he can’t perform his duties properly.

Question 8.
Write any two ill-effects of communalism on Democracy.
Or
Write any two impacts of communalism on Indian Democracy.
Answer:
Communalism has affected the Indian democracy in the following manner:

• Several political parties in India have been formed on the basis of religion.
• Communal feelings play a vital role in elections. Almost all the political parties field their candidates on the basis of caste and community.

Question 9.
Write any two effects of Poverty on Indian Democracy.
Answer:
1. Working of Indian democracy has been adversely affected by poverty of the masses. The poor citizen cannot develop physically and mentally as he can’t get a square meal a day. He remains worried about earning his livelihood and has no time to think over the problems facing the country.

2. A poor person does not even think about the elections. He can’t even use his right to vote independently. He can’t cast his vote against his employer.

Question 10.
What is the effect of casteism on Indian Democracy?
Answer:
1. Selection of Candidates on the basis of Caste:
Caste considerations are given great weight in the selection of candidates. Generally a candidate of that caste is fielded which dominates a particular constituency. All the political parties attach great importance to casteism while selecting their candidates for the general elections.

2. Election Propaganda:
Caste plays a vital role in election propaganda. Victory or defeat of a candidate largely depends upon caste based propa-ganda.

Question 11.
Mention two social, political factors which affect the Indian democracy.
Answer:

• Multi-Party System: In India Multi-Party System exists. There are national as well as regional parties.
• Illiteracy: An illiterate person cannot use properly his right to vote.

Question 12.
Which of the social evils influence Indian democracy?
Answer: Indian democracy is suffering from various social evils which have proved a curse. These social evils are as under:

• • Social and economic inequality.
  • Illiteracy
  • Casteism.
  • Unemployment.

Question 13.
Write down any four methods to stop Communalism.
Answer:
Following suggestions can prove helpful in this direction:
1. Right Type of Education:
Communalism is a mental malady and hence needs a mental remedy. Through well designed text-books, articles the student at different levels should be taught the feeling of toleration, love, harmony, brotherhood and peace.

2. Right use of Media:
T.V., Radio and media should use their power in right direction. Instead of covering the incident to create communal feeling these should deliver the message of love, harmony, brotherhood, unity and integrity, peace etc.

3. Decommunalisation of Political Parties:
Political parties should be decommunalised. Election Commission should not recognize any political party that is based on religion and spreads communal feelings.

4. Positive and Active Role of Government:
The government should play an active and positive role in this direction. The government should try to root out the causes of communalism before its root gets too deep to cut out.

Question 14.
Describe any two conditions essential for the success of Democracy in India.
Answer:

• Enlightened citizenship is very essential to strengthen democratic traditions.
• Education is very essential to strengthen democratic traditions. Education makes people responsible and responsive.

Question 15.
Write any two types of separatism.
Answer:

• Ethnic Separatism.
• Religious Separatism.

Question 16.
Write any two economic factors effecting the democracy.
Answer:

• Poverty: Poverty is an important factor effecting democracy.
• Economic Inequality: Economic inequality is another factor, effecting democracy.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you know about Parliamentary System?
Answer:
Parliamentary Government is that system of governance wherein the real executive or the cabinet is responsible to Legislature or its Popular House.

Question 2.
What is meant by nominal executive?
Answer:
Nominal executive means that executive which has been given all the executive powers by the Constitution, but in reality, it does not exercise any of these powers.

Question 3.
What do you mean by the Real Executive?
Or
Who is the Real Executive in India?
Answer:
The real executive is that executive which exercises executive powers in reality. The Prime Minister and Cabinet of India is an example of the real executive.

Question 4.
Mention any one feature of Parliamentary System.
Answer:
1. Parliamentary System has two kinds of executive nominal and real.
Answer:
1952

2. Every person who is a citizen of India and who is not less than ……………. years of age has the right to exercise his vote.
Answer:
Eighteen

3. Sayyad Kazi and Shibban Lai Saxena supported the ……………. form of govt, in Consrtituent Assembly.
Answer:
Presidential

4. K.M. Munshi and Krishna Swami Ayyer supported the ……………. form of govt. in Consrtituent Assembly.
Answer:
Parliamentary

5. There is a close relation between ……………. and legislature in parliamentary form of govt.
Answer:
Executive

6. There is a difference between Nominal Executive and ……………. Executive in Parliamentary form of govt.
Answer:
Real.

True Or False Statement

1. Increasing Literacy is one of the main challenges to Indian Democracy.
Answer:
False

2. In Parliamentary System, Head of the State is Real Executive.
Answer:
False

3. Article 21-A, under 86th Amendment of Constitution provides free and compulsory education.
Answer:
True

4. Criminalisation of politics is becoming a dominant aspect of political life of our country.
Answer:
True

5. Social Inequality has greatly affected India democracy.
Answer:
True

6. Poverty is not a main curse of illiteracy.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Main challenges of Indian Democracy are:
(a) Poverty
(b) Illiteracy
(c) Unemployment
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 2.
Main reason of poverty in India is:
(a) Increased Population
(b) Education
(c) Development
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(a) Increased Population

Question 3.
Regionalism means:
(a) Love for the Nation
(b) Loyalty for Religion
(c) Love for a Region
(d) Loyalty for Caste.
Answer:
(c) Love for a Region

Question 4.
Which is the main reason of illiteracy in India?
(a) British imperialism
(b) Lock of industry
(c) Lock of sufficient funds
(d) Violent activities of Naxalities.
Answer:
(c) Lock of sufficient funds

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Religion Book Solutions Chapter 8 Ethical Teachings of Jainism Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Religion Chapter 8 Ethical Teachings of Jainism

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you know about the origin of Jainism? Explain.
Answer:
Jainism is one of the most ancient religions of India. Its path of asceticism and traditions of yoga can be traced down to the Harappan period. Even the Vedic literature describes the Jaina Acharyas. From this, we know that Jainism was popular at that time. According to Jain traditions, Rishabhnatha who was the first Tirthankara was the first person who led to the beginning of human civilization. Hence, Jainism was prevalent at the time when civilization began.

The word Jain was derived from the Sanskrit word Jin which means victorious. The victorious means a person who has control over his senses and heart. Jainism has been called Nirgrantha from the beginning. Nirgrantha means freedom from bondage or free. Jain Acharyas are also called Tirthankar. Tirthankara means one who acts like a bridge or a guru who helps to cross the ocean of life. Jain philosophy is also called Arhat philosophy. Arhat means respectable. Those who followed Jainism were called Jains. The Jains believed in 24 Tirthankaras. Their names are as follows :

• Rishabhanatha
• Ajita
• Sambhava
• Abhinandana
• Sumati
• Padmaprabha
• Suparshva
• Chandraprabha
• Pushpadanta
• Shitala
• Sheyansha
• Vasupujya
• Vimala
• Ananta
• Dharma
• Shanti
• Kunthu
• Araha
• Malli
• Munisuvrata
• Nami
• Nemi
• Parshavanatha
• Mahavira

The Jains consider Rishabhanatha or Rishabadeva as the founder of Jainism. According to the Jaina traditions, he was born in Ayodhya. He ruled for several years. Later he gave the responsibility of the state to his son Bharat and left the materialistic world to lead the life of an ascetic. At last, he attained enlightenment. He preached the knowledge to other people. Therefore, he was called the first Tirthankara. It is not possible to give the history of the 21 Tirthankaras after him, but there is a description of them in the Jain traditions. In Jainism, the 23rd Tirthankara Parshavanatha and the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira are historically important people.

Lord Parshavanatha was born 250 years before Lord Mahavira at the house of King Ashvasena in Banaras. The name of his mother was Vamadevi. He had a luxurious childhood. At the age of 30 years, Parshavanatha gave up all the pleasures of life and went out in search of true knowledge. He attained enlightenment after 83 days of meditation. He spent the rest of the 70 years of life in preaching. Around 777 B.C., he “attained Nirvana at a mountain called Mount Sammeta.

The teachings of Parshavanatha are called Chaturyama or the four pledges. These four pledges are

• Do not harm the living beings (ahimsa).
• Do not tell lies (sunrita).
• Do not take without giving (asteya).
• Do not desire any materialistic things, (aparigraha)

Lord Mahavira added one more principle to these four principles which is called Brahmacharya. This is why Lord Mahavira is not regarded as the founder of Jainism, but is considered as a reformer or rejuvenator of £he faith which was already in existence and had a long tradition.

Question 2.

• Give the total number of Tirthankaras in Jainism.
• Throw light on the life of Lord Mahavira.

Or
Give the name of Mahavira’s mother. How many dreams did Lord Mahavira’s mother had before giving birth to Mahavira? Write a note on the life of Lord Mahavira.
Or
Give the number of Tirthankaras in Jainism. Write a note on the life of the 24th Tirthankara.
Or
What was Lord Mahavira’s number among Jain Tirthankaras? Write about Mahavira’s life.
Answer:
1. Birth and Childhood of Mahavira: Mahavira was born in 599 B.C. at Kundagrama near Vaisali (Bihar). A few historians believe his birth date to be 540 B.C. Mahavira’s childhood name was Vardhamana. Mahavira’s father’s name was Siddhartha. He was the chief 6f the Kshatriya tribe Jantrinka. Mahavira’s mother’s name was Trishala. She was the Sister of the Chetak, the ruler of Lichchavi dynasty. Before his birth, Mahavira’s mother had 14 dreams. Special arrangements were made for the education of Mahavira. Right from childhood, Mahavira had no interest in materialistic things. He was always lost in his own thoughts.

2. Marriage: To attract Mahavira’s attention towards materialism, his father got Mahavira married to a beautiful princess Yashoda. There is no definite information regarding Mahavira’s age at the time of his marriage. After some time, a daughter was born at Mahavira’s house. She was named Priyadarshana.

3. Renunciation and Enlightenment: Married life could not in any way hinder Mahavira’s religious interests. After his parents died, Mahavira took permission from his elder brother Nandivarman and left his household to go to the jungle in search of enlightenment. He was’30 years old at that time. He vigorously meditated in thfe jungle for 12 years. At last, he attained Kavala Jnana (enlightenment) at Jrimbhikagrama on the bank of the river Rijupalika. It was only after the attainment of enlightenment the Vardhaman began to be called Jin (one who has been able to conquer victory) and Mahavira (great conqueror). Mahavira was 42 at the time of enlightenment.

4. Preachings: After the attainment of enlightenment, Mahavira started preaching in order to eradicate the prevalent superstitions and to propagate his preachings about the True Path. Several people were impressed by his preachings and several people became his disciples. The famous preaching centres of Mahavira were Rajgriha, Vaishali, Kosala, Mithila, Videha and Anga. According to Jain traditions, the ruler of Magadha i.e. Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru also ambraced Jainism.

5. Nirvana: Lord Mahavira preached for nearly 30 years. It was at Pava (Patna) that Mahavira attained salvation in the year 527 B.C. at the age of 72. At that time, Mahavira had 14,000 disciples.

Question 3.
Discuss the origin and development of Jainism.
Or
Describe Jainism.
Answer:
Jainism is one of the most ancient religions of India. Its path of ascetism and traditions of yoga can be traced down the Harappan period. Even the Vedic literature describes the Jaina Acharyas. From this, we know that Jainism was popular at that time. According to Jain traditions, Rishabhnatha who was the first Tirthankara was the first person who led to the beginning of human civilization. Hence, Jainism was prevalent at the time when the civilization began.

The word Jain was derived from the Sanskrit word Jin which means victorious. The victorious means a person who has control over his senses and heart. Jainism has been called Nirgrantha from the beginning. Nirgrantha means freedom from bondage or free. Jain Acharyas are also called Tirthankar. Tirthankara means one who acts like a bridge or a guru who helps to cross the ocean of life. Jain philosophy is also called Arhat philosophy. Arhat means respectable. Those who followed Jainism were called Jains.

The Jains consider Rishabhanatha or Rishabadeva as the founder of Jainism. According to the Jaina traditions, he was born in Ayodhaya. He ruled for several years. Later he gave the responsibility of the state to his son Bharat and left the materialistic world to lead the life of an ascetic. At last he attained enlightenment. He preached the knowledge to the other people. Therefore, he was called the first Tirthankara. It is not possible to give the history of the 21 Tirthankaras after him, but there is a description about them in the Jain traditions. In Jainism, the 23rd Tirthankara Parshavanatha and the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira are historically important people.

Lord Parshavanatha was born 250 years before Lord Mahavira at the house of King Ashvasena in Banaras. The name of his mother was Vamadevi. He had a luxurious childhood. At the age of 30 years, Parshavanatha gave up all the pleasures of life and went out in search of true knowledge. He attained enlightenment after 83 days of pieditation. He spent the rest of his 70 years of life in preaching. Around 777 B.C., he “attained Nirvana at a mountain called Mount Sammeta.

The teachings of Parshavanatha are called Chaturyama or the four pledges. These four pledges are

• Do not harm the living beings (ahimsa).
• Do not tell lies (sunrita).
• Do not take without giving (asteya).
• Do not desire any materialistic things, (aparigraha)

Lord Mahavira added one more principle to these four principles which is called Brahmacharya. This is why Lord Mahavira is not regarded as the founder of Jainism, but is considered as a reformer or rejuvenator of £he faith which was already in existence and had a long tradition.

1. Birth and Childhood of Mahavira : Mahavira was born in 599 B.C. at Kundagrama near Vaisali (Bihar). A few historians believe his birth date to be 540 B.C. Mahavira’s childhood name was Vardhamana. Mahavira’s father’s name was Siddhartha. He was the chief 6f a Kshatriya tribe Jantrinka. Mahavira’s mother’s name was Trishala. She was the Sister of the Chetak, the ruler of Lichchavi dynasty. Before his birth, Mahavira’s mother had 14 dreams. Special arrangements were made for the education of Mahavira. Right from childhood, Mahavira had no interest in materialistic things. He was always lost in his own thoughts.

2. Marriage : To attract Mahavira’s attention towards materialism, his father got Mahavira married to a beautiful princess Yashoda. There is no definite information regarding Mahavira’s age at the time of his marriage. After some time, a daughter was born at Mahavira’s house. She was named Priyadarshana.

3. Renunciation and Enlightenment: Married life could not in any way hinder Mahavira’s religious interests. After his parents died, Mahavira took permission from his elder brother Nandivarman and left his household to go to the jungle in search of enlightenment. He was 30 years old at that time. He vigorously meditated in the jungle for 12 years. At last, he attained Kavala Jnana (enlightenment) at Jrimbhikagrama on the bank of the river Rijupalika.

It was only after the attainment of enlightenment the Vardhaman began to be called Jin (one who has been able to conquer victory) and Mahavira (great conqueror). Mahavira was 42 at the time of enlightenment.

4. Preachings: After the attainment of enlightenment, Mahavira started preaching in order to eradicate the prevalent superstitions and to propagate his preachings about the True Path. Several people were impressed by his preachings and several people became his disciples. The famous preaching centres of Mahavira were Rajgriha, Vaishali, Kosala, Mithila, Videha and Anga. According to Jain traditions, the ruler of Magadha i.e. Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru also ambraced Jainism.

5. Nirvana : Lord Mahavira preached for nearly 30 years. It was at Pava (Patna) that Mahavira attained salvation in the year 527 B.C. at the age of 72. At that time, Mahavira had 14,000 disciples.

Question 4.
“Ethical teachings are the foundation of Jainism.”
Or
Discuss the Ethical teachings of Jainism.
Or
Describe in brief but meaningful the basic teachings of Jainism.
Or
Describe the basic teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Or
“Moral Values are the basis of Jainism.” Elucidate.
Or
Describe the Ethical teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Or
Describe the Ethical values of Jainism.
Or
Discuss about the Ethical teachings of Jainism.
Or
Write a detailed note on Jain Ethics.
Or
Discuss the Ethical values of Jainism.
Or
Discuss the main teachings of Jainism.
Or
Discuss the Ethical teachings of Jainism.
Or
Give information about moral teachings of Jainism.
Or
Write the teachings of Jainism.
Answer:
The main ethical teachings of Jainism or Mahavira have significantly contributed to our Indian culture that we are proud of it even today. Jainism taught people the lesson of Tri-Ratna, Ahimsa, good behaviour and mutual brotherhood. It vehemently opposed the superstitions prevalent in society. It had no faith in yajnas, sacrifices, Vedas and sanctity of Sanskrit as a language. It inspired people to lead a simple and pious life. Undoubtedly, Jainism, with its ethical teachings performed the great task of rendering a new direction to the Indian society.

1. Tri-Ratna : Acocrding to Jainism, the prime objective of human life is the attainment of salvation or Nirvana. For its attainment, a person must tread on the path of the Tri-Ratnas known as the three gems. These are : Right Belief, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. According to the first ratna, each person must have firm faith in the 24 Tirthankaras, Nine Truths and the Jain shastras. According to the second ratna, the Jains should acquire true and complete knowledge.

This is acquired by an indepth study of the preachings of the Tirthankaras. There are two forms of this knowledge which are called the direct knowledge and the indirect knowledge. The knowledge obtained through the Self is direct knowledge whereas knowledge obtained through one’s senses is called the indirect knowledge.

There are five types of knowledge whose names are as follows : Mati Jnana, Shruti Jnana, Swadhi Jnana, Manparyadi Jnana and Kevala Jnana. According to the third ratna, every man should spend his life with the right conduct. Right conduct is that of which Jainism gives us a teaching. All the three ratnas move together. In the absence of even one of these, man cannot achieve his goal. As an example, just as it is very important to put oil, wick and fire to light a lamp because in the absence of even any one of these, there would be no illumination.

2. Ahimsa : Jainism emphasises a lot on Ahimsa. Aacharanga Sutra emphasises on the importance of Ahimsa by saying, “One’s life is dear to everyone, all want happiness, no one desires sorrow, no one wants in excess, life is dear to everybody and all have a desire to live.” Hence, whatever is pleasurable for us is pleasurable for others as well. Violence is of two types : violence through the heart and violence through Karma. Before violence comes in action or through Karma, violence first comes in one’s heart i.e. in one’s thoughts. Anger, pride, greed and fraud are forms of violence of the heart. Hence, it is extremely important to purify the thoughts of the heart in order to avoid violence. According to Jainism, besides human beings, the Soul also resides in animals, stones and trees etc.

Hence we should not give any trouble to the living or non-living beings. For this reason, the Jains walk barefoot, wear a cloth over the mouth, drink water after sieving and eat nothing after dark to avoid killing of any small creature. According to Harbans Singh and L.M. Joshi, “The doctrine of non-violence (ahimsa) is a cardinal principle of Jain religion.”

3. Nine Truths : Jain philosophy teaches that there are Nine Truths. These truths are :

1. Jiva—In Jain philosophy, the Jiva means atman or soul. It is eternal and absolute. It enjoys or suffers the fruits of its deeds. It transmigrates.
2. Ajiva—It is the non-living element. It does not have the power to think. It has two types. One that has form (Rupi) and one that is formless (Arupi)
3. Punya—It is a consequence of good actions. There are nine ways to merit.
4. Papa—It is the main cause of the bondage of Jiva. Papa results in terrible punishment. It leads to 82 different censequences.
5. Asarva—It is the process of accumulation of deeds or Karmic matter by the soul. The Karmas are of 8 types.
6. Samvara—The process that prevents the Karma to come near the Self is called Samvara. There are 57 ways to inhibit the Karma.
7. Bandha—It means bondage. It is the union of Jiva with Pudgala. There are 5 reasons responsible for bondage.
8. Nirjara—It means to eradicate. It helps to destroy Karma.
9. Moksha—In this, the creature is freed from the vicious circle of Karma. It is a state of complete peace wherein he attains freedom from all kinds of sorrows.

4. Karma Theory : In Jainism, the Karma theory has a significant place. According to this theory, ‘”You shall reap what you shall sow. If one indulges in good deeds, one shall obtain good fruit, if one performs bad deeds then the consequence shall be negative, under no circumstances would they be able to acquire freedom from Karma.” As soon as one has a good or a bad thought, it immediately attaches itself to the Jiva (Self) just as the dust particles stick themselves to the oily body. These Karmas are of eight types :

1. Gyanvarniya Karmas—They inhibit the knowledge of Self.
2. Darshanvamiya Karmas—They inhibit the desire of the Self.
3. Vaidniya Karmas—These actions lead to happiness and sorrow.
4. Mohniya Karmas—These are Karmas that entrap the Self in the vicious circle of attachment.
5. Ayu Karmas— These Karmas determine the age of a person.
6. Naam Karmas—These Karmas determine the personality of a person.
7. Gotra Karmas—These determine the- gotra and hence his higher and lower status in society.
8. Antriya Karmas—These are Karmas that inhibit good Karmas.

Because of one’s Karmas, man is trapped in the vicious circle of transmigration. Man can obtain freedom by destroying one’s Karmas.

5. The Doctrine of Manyness : The Doctrine of Manyness is a unique philosophical theory of Jain philosophy. The word manyness indicates many elements of severs! religions or virtues. It means that whatever form of knowledge we have about a thing may be quite different from the form of knowledge another person has about that thing. As an example, a child is considered to be a son by a mother, a brother by a sister, paternal grandson by a paternal grandmother, maternal grandson by maternal grandmother and a friend by other children.

It means that every element has many virtues or there is manyness attached to every element. For this reason, our knowledge about each element is only partial. It is called Syadvaad. It is another form of manyness.

6. Five Mahavartas or Annuvartas : According to Jainism, a man should follow the Five Mahavartas in his life. According to these

• Man should always follow the policy of Ahimsa (non-violence),
• He should always speak the truth.
• He should not keep any thing with him which he has not obtained in charity,
• He should not keep wealth with him.
• He should follow Brahmacharya.

Of these, the first four principles were popularised by Parshavanatha whereas the fifth principle was incorporated by Mahavira. According to Dr. K.C. Sogani, “The observance of these five vows is capable of bringing about individual as well as social progress.”2

7. Good Character : Lord Mahavira gave special importance to good character. He said that we should stay away from vices; like stealing, telling lies, backbiting, greed etc. He said that we should lead a simple and pious life. Man should detest evil and not the evil doer.

8. Worship of Twenty Four Tirthankaras : Those who believed in Jainism worshipped the 24 Tirthankaras. They strongly believed in the Tirthankaras to attain salvation.

9. Belief in Equality : Jainism believed in the principle of equality. According to it, all men are equal. Hence one should not discriminate on the basis of rich-poor, high-low etc.

10. Disbelief in Yajnas and Sacrifices : Jainism shows disbelief in yajnas, sacrifices and other customs and traditions in vain. According to them, no human being can attain salvation with the exhibition of religious practices. Hence Jainism asked people to keep away from all superstitions.

11. Disbelief in Vedas and Sanskrit Language : Lord Mahavira did not have any faith in the holy texts, the Vedas. He was of the view that the Vedas were not composed as a result of divine knowledge. Hence it is useless to read the Vedic mantras. He did not believe in the sanctity of Sanskrit language. He considered all the languages as sacred. He propagated his preachings in the prevalent Ardhamagadhi language.

12. Disbelief in God : Jainism does not believe in the existence of God. According to this, God is not responsible for the creation, preservation and destruction of the world. There is no need to have a God to attain salvation. Man’s Self is his greatest power. Man can attain salvation by leading a simple and pious life.

13. Nirvana : According to Mahavira, the main aim of human life is the attainment of Nirvana. In Jainism, Nirvana implies the attainment of freedom from the cycle of transmigration. After the attainment of Nirvana, man is freed from the cycle of transmigration and he attains eternal peace.

Question 5.
Describe the life and important teachings of Bhagwan Mahavira.
Answer:
1. Birth and Childhood of Mahavira : Mahavira was born in 599 B.C. at Kundagrama near Vaisali (Bihar). A few historians believe his birth date to be 540 B.C. Mahavira’s childhood name was Vardhamana. Mahavira’s father’s name was Siddhartha. He was the chief 6f a Kshatriya tribe Jantrinka. Mahavira’s mother’s name was Trishala. She was the Sister of the Chetak, the ruler of Lichchavi dynasty. Before his birth, Mahavira’s mother had 14 dreams. Special arrangements were made for the education of Mahavira. Right from childhood, Mahavira had no interest in materialistic things. He was always lost in his own thoughts.

2. Marriage : To attract Mahavira’s attention towards materialism, his father got Mahavira married to a beautiful princess Yashoda. There is no definite information regarding Mahavira’s age at the time of his marriage. After some time, a daughter was born at Mahavira’s house. She was named Priyadarshana.

3. Renunciation and Enlightenment: Married life could not in any way hinder Mahavira’s religious interests. After his parents died, Mahavira took permission from his elder brother Nandivarman and left his household to go to the jungle in search of enlightenment. He was’30 years old at that time. He vigorously meditated in thfe jungle for 12 years. At last, he attained Kavala Jnana (enlightenment) at Jrimbhikagrama on the bank of the river Rijupalika. It was only after the attainment of enlightenment the Vardhaman began to be called Jin (one who has been able to conquer victory) and Mahavira (great conqueror). Mahavira was 42 at the time of enlightenment.

4. Preachings: After the attainment of enlightenment, Mahavira started preaching in order to eradicate the prevalent superstitions and to propagate his preachings about the True Path. Several people were impressed by his preachings and several people became his disciples. The famous preaching centres of Mahavira were Rajgriha, Vaishali, Kosala, Mithila, Videha and Anga. According to Jain traditions, the ruler of Magadha i.e. Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru also ambraced Jainism.

5. Nirvana : Lord Mahavira preached for nearly 30 years. It was at Pava (Patna) that Mahavira attained salvation in the year 527 B.C. at the age of 72. At that time, Mahavira had 14,000 disciples.

The main ethical teachings of Jainism or Mahavira have significantly contributed to our Indian culture that we are proud of it even today. Jainism taught people the lesson of Tri-Ratna, Ahimsa, good behaviour and mutual brotherhood. It vehemently opposed the superstitions prevalent in society. It had no faith in yajnas, sacrifices, Vedas and sanctity of Sanskrit as a language. It inspired people to lead a simple and pious life. Undoubtedly, Jainism, with its ethical teachings performed the great task of rendering a new direction to the Indian society.

1. Tri-Ratna : Acocrding to Jainism, the prime objective of human life is the attainment of salvation or Nirvana. For its attainment, a person must tread on the path of the Tri-Ratnas known as the three gems. These are : Right Belief, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. According to the first ratna, each person must have firm faith in the 24 Tirthankaras, Nine Truths and the Jain shastras. According to the second ratna, the Jains should acquire true and complete knowledge.

This is acquired by an indepth study of the preachings of the Tirthankaras. There are two forms of this knowledge which are called the direct knowledge and the indirect knowledge. The knowledge obtained through the Self is direct knowledge whereas knowledge obtained through one’s senses is called the indirect knowledge.

There are five types of knowledge whose names are as follows : Mati Jnana, Shruti Jnana, Swadhi Jnana, Manparyadi Jnana and Kevala Jnana. According to the third ratna, every man should spend his life with the right conduct. Right conduct is that of which Jainism gives us a teaching. All the three ratnas move together. In the absence of even one of these, man cannot achieve his goal. As an example, just as it is very important to put oil, wick and fire to light a lamp because in the absence of even any one of these, there would be no illumination.

2. Ahimsa : Jainism emphasises a lot on Ahimsa. Aacharanga Sutra emphasises on the importance of Ahimsa by saying, “One’s life is dear to everyone, all want happiness, no one desires sorrow, no one wants in excess, life is dear to everybody and all have a desire to live.” Hence, whatever is pleasurable for us is pleasurable for others as well. Violence is of two types : violence through the heart and violence through Karma.

Before violence comes in action or through Karma, violence first comes in one’s heart i.e. in one’s thoughts. Anger, pride, greed and fraud are forms of violence of the heart. Hence, it is extremely important to purify the thoughts of the heart in order to avoid violence. According to Jainism, besides human beings, the Soul also resides in animals, stones and trees etc.

Hence we should not give any trouble to the living or non-living beings. For this reason, the Jains walk barefoot, wear a cloth over the mouth, drink water after sieving and eat nothing after dark to avoid killing of any small creature. According to Harbans Singh and L.M. Joshi, “The doctrine of non-violence (ahimsa) is a cardinal principle of Jain religion.”

3. Nine Truths : Jain philosophy teaches that there are Nine Truths. These truths are :

• Jiva—In Jain philosophy, the Jiva means atman or soul. It is eternal and absolute. It enjoys or suffers the fruits of its deeds. It transmigrates.
• Ajiva—It is the non-living element. It does not have the power to think. It has two types. One that has form (Rupi) and one that is formless (Arupi)
• Punya—It is a consequence of good actions. There are nine ways to merit.
• Papa—It is the main cause of the bondage of Jiva. Papa results in terrible punishment. It leads to 82 different censequences.
• Asarva—It is the process of accumulation of deeds or Karmic matter by the soul. The Karmas are of 8 types.
• Samvara—The process that prevents the Karma to come near the Self is called Samvara. There are 57 ways to inhibit the Karma.
• Bandha—It means bondage. It is the union of Jiva with Pudgala. There are 5 reasons responsible for bondage.
• Nirjara—It means to eradicate. It helps to destroy Karma.
• Moksha—In this, the creature is freed from the vicious circle of Karma. It is a state of complete peace wherein he attains freedom from all kinds of sorrows.

4. Karma Theory : In Jainism, the Karma theory has a significant place. According to this theory, ‘”You shall reap what you shall sow. If one indulges in good deeds, one shall obtain good fruit, if one performs bad deeds then the consequence shall be negative, under no circumstances would they be able to acquire freedom from Karma.” As soon as one has a good or a bad thought, it immediately attaches itself to the Jiva (Self) just as the dust particles stick themselves to the oily body. These Karmas are of eight types :

• Gyanvarniya Karmas—They inhibit the knowledge of SelT-
• Darshanvamiya Karmas—They inhibit the desire of the Self.
• Vaidniya Karmas—These actions lead to happiness and sorrow.
• Mohniya Karmas—These are Karmas that entrap the Self in the vicious circle of attachment.
• Ayu Karmas— These Karmas determine the age of a person.
• Naam Karmas—These Karmas determine the personality of a person.
• Gotra Karmas—These determine the- gotra and hence his higher and lower status in society.
• Antriya Karmas—These are Karmas that inhibit good Karmas.

Because of one’s Karmas, man is trapped in the vicious circle of transmigration. Man can obtain freedom by destroying one’s Karmas.

5. The Doctrine of Manyness : The Doctrine of Manyness is a unique philosophical theory of Jain philosophy. The word manyness indicates many elements of severs! religions or virtues. It means that whatever form of knowledge we have about a thing may be quite different from the form of knowledge another person has about that thing. As an example, a child is considered to be a son by a mother, a brother by a sister, paternal grandson by a paternal grandmother, maternal grandson by maternal grandmother and a friend by other children. It means that every element has many virtues or there is manyness attached to every element. For this reason, our knowledge about each element is only partial. It is called Syadvaad. It is another form of manyness.

6. Five Mahavartas or Annuvartas : According to Jainism, a man should follow the Five Mahavartas in his life. According to these

• Man should always follow the policy of Ahimsa (non-violence),
• He should always speak the truth.
• He should not keep any thing with him which he has not obtained in charity,
• He should not keep wealth with him.
• He should follow Brahmacharya.

Of these, the first four principles were popularised by Parshavanatha whereas the fifth principle was incorporated by Mahavira. According to Dr. K.C. Sogani, “The observance of these five vows is capable of bringing about individual as well as social progress.”

7. Good Character : Lord Mahavira gave special importance to good character. He said that we should stay away from vices; like stealing, telling lies, backbiting, greed etc. He said that we should lead a simple and pious life. Man should detest evil and not the evil doer.

8. Worship of Twenty Four Tirthankaras : Those who believed in Jainism worshipped the 24 Tirthankaras. They strongly believed in the Tirthankaras to attain salvation.

9. Belief in Equality : Jainism believed in the principle of equality. According to it, all men are equal. Hence one should not discriminate on the basis of rich-poor, high-low etc.

10. Disbelief in Yajnas and Sacrifices : Jainism shows disbelief in yajnas, sacrifices and other customs and traditions in vain. According to them, no human being can attain salvation with the exhibition of religious practices. Hence Jainism asked people to keep away from all superstitions.

11. Disbelief in Vedas and Sanskrit Language : Lord Mahavira did not have any faith in the holy texts, the Vedas. He was of the view that the Vedas were not composed as a result of divine knowledge. Hence it is useless to read the Vedic mantras. He did not believe in the sanctity of Sanskrit language. He considered all the languages as sacred. He propagated his preachings in the prevalent Ardhamagadhi language.

12. Disbelief in God : Jainism does not believe in the existence of God. According to this, God is not responsible for the creation, preservation and destruction of the world. There is no need to have a God to attain salvation. Man’s Self is his greatest power. Man can attain salvation by leading a simple and pious life.

13. Nirvana : According to Mahavira, the main aim of human life is the attainment of Nirvana. In Jainism, Nirvana implies the attainment of freedom from the cycle of transmigration. After the attainment of Nirvana, man is freed from the cycle of transmigration and he attains eternal peace.

Question 6.
What is meant by three Jewels in Jainism? Discuss.
Or
Explain Tri-Ratna and tell to which religion do they belong?
Or
Explain the three Jewels of Jainism.
Or
Discuss the Tri-Ratnas of Jainism.
Answer:
It is clear from the principles of Jain philosophy that first the creature (self) is in its pure form. Later, because of karmic elements, it loses its sanctity. As a consequence, man has to face grave problems. If these karmic elements are destroyed, then man can successfully cross the sea of transmigration and attain salvation. Jain philosophy considers the attainment of salvation as the highest objective of human life. A person of any caste, sex, religion, class or age can tread on this path. To tread on this path the Tri-Ratnas have been prescribed in Jainism.

These Tri-Ratnas are

• Right Belief
• Right Knowledge
• Right Conduct.

These Tri-Ratnas are not three different paths for the attainment of salvation but three ways are complementary to the same path. If a single path from amongst them is missing, then man would not be able to achieve his objective. As an example, if a man needs to go to the terrace, he would have to use a ladder but if the ladder is placed against the wall and even one of the supports is missing in between them, that man will never be able to reach the top. A brief description of the Tri-Ratnas is as follows :

1. Right Belief: Among the Tri-Ratnas, the Ratna of Right Belief has been given the first and foremost position. Because if man does not have the Right Belief then he cannot acquire true knowledge and true conduct. . Right Belief means that a person who wants to attain salvation must have complete faith in the 24 Jain Tirthankaras, Nine Great Truths and the Jain Shastras. According to the Jain Shastras, Right Belief can be accomplished only when the concerned person a,dorns its 8 parts.

These 8 parts are :

1. No doubt in any of the principles of Janism.
2. There should be no love for materialistic goods,
3. Despite uncountable vices in the body, one should not develop a sense of resentment for it.
4. One should not have a bent of mind towards the incorrect path,
5. The pious should be praised but the others should not be criticised,
6. People who have deviated from the path of Dharma must be shown the right path,
7. The religious minded people should be completely respected,
8. Tireless efforts should be made to propagate Jain principles.

Right Belief can be acquired by a person only when he keeps at bay from three kinds of superstitions and 8 kinds of pride.

The 3 kinds of superstitions are as follows :

• To think of oneself pious by climbing mountains, bathing in the rivers or walking on fire,
• To believe in the false gods and goddesses,
• To serve the false ascetics.

The 8 kinds of pride are as follows :

• Pride in knowledge,
• Pride in worship,
• Pride in family,
• Pride in one’s caste,
• Pride in one’s power,
• Pride in wealth,
• Pride in meditation,
• Pride in physical beauty. Right Belief prepares the foundation of prosperity and salvation for us.

2. Right Knowledge : Right Knowledge is the foundation of right belief. For this reason, there is a strong relationship between Right Belief and Right Knowledge. Right Knowledge is that which is given in the Jain Shastras. A person who wants to attain salvation, should essentially attain Right Knowledge. This knowledge does not come from outside but comes by removing the curtains of the element of Karma from one’s life. This knowledge is said to have two forms which are called direct and indirect. The knowledge that one acquires directly through the Soul is called direct whereas the knowledge that one acquires through senses is called indirect knowledge.

The Jains give five types of knowledge :

• Mati Jnana : This knowledge is acquired through the senses and is limited,
• Shruti Jnana : This knowledge is acquired by reading or listening. Through this, the knowledge of the past, present and future can be acquired. This knowledge too can be acquired through the senses,
• Awadhi Jnana : The knowledge acquired through the Soul about a distant time and place is called Awadhi Jnana.
• Manparyaya Jnana : This knowledge too can be acquired through the Soul,
• Kevala Jnana : It is the complete true knowledge. It is also called Parmarthic Gyan. A person who acquires this knowledge is called Siddha.

Errors in knowledge are caused because of :

• an error caused by senses
• incorrect study
• vague perspective.

Just as a little amount of sourness added to milk can make the entire milk sour, similarly a small flaw in one’s knowledge prohibits a person from acquiring the Right Knowledge.

3. Right Conduct : In order to attain salvation, aft.er acquiring Right Belief and Right Knowledge, it is extremely essential to acquire the Right Conduct. Right Conduct alone destroys the karmic elements of a person and prepares the path of salvation for him. To follow the Right Conduct, Jainism has prescribed some rules. These rules though apply in the same manner to the common people and the Jain ascetics but the degree of enforcement is different. The Jain ascetics have to strictly follow these rules whereas some concessions have been granted to the common people. These rules are called the five Mahavratas or five Annuvratas.

According to- these :

1. Man should never give suffering to others and he should follow the policy of Ahimsa.
2. He should always speak the truth. He should speak sweet and good for all.
3. He should not keep anything with him which he has not received in charity.
4. He should not desire any materialistic things.
5. He should follow Brahmacharya.

By following the above mentioned Tri-Ratnas, a creature’s karmic deeds start getting destroyed slowly and he attains his ultimate objective i.e. Moksha. In the end, we agree with the words of J.P. Sudha, “According to the Jains, the three Jewels of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct, known as Triratna constitute the path which prevents fresh karmic matter from entering the soul and frees the individual from the bond of rebirth.”

Question 7.
Write a note on Ahimsa (non-violence) of Jainism.
Or
Throw light on the Jain principle of Ahimsa.
Or
What is meant by Ahimsa? What is its importance in Jainism?
Or
Write a note on the concept of Ahimsa in Jainism.
Answer:
1. Meaning of Ahimsa : No other religion in the world has given so much importance to the policy of Ahimsa as has Jainism. There would be no exaggeration if one would call Ahimsa as the foundation of Jainism. Ahimsa means not to give suffering to any living being. Tightly roping the living creatures, hitting them, making them carry bulk greater than their stamina, keeping them deprived of food and water is prohibited in Jainism. Besides this, it is absolutely inappropriate to kill them for one’s own food.

According to Jain philosophy, there is life in trees and stones even. Hence, we should not cause any harm to them also. It is said in the Aacharang Sutra, “Life is dear to all, all desire happiness, no one wants sorrow, no one wants more, life is dear to all and all desire to live.” Hence, what is happiness for one, is happiness for the others also.

2. Two types of Violence : Violence is of two types : violence in thought or inner violence and violence in action or physical and external violence. All violence in action is preceded by violence in thought. In order to prevent-violence one must purify one’s thoughts. One commits sin and becomes guilty of violence when one has passionate ideas. The impure state of the inner self is a state of violence. Man gets entrapped in the vicious circle of materialistic greed and turns to violence in order to fulfil his lust, to dupe someone or to take revenge on someone.

When thoughts pertaining to this come to a person’s mind, he first pollutes his Soul. He does not stop there, but resorts to external violence and thus causes suffering to others and to himself as well. It is imperative for a person that he purifies his thoughts to prevent violence. While preaching to his disciples, Mahavira said, “Oh ! Shramanas, first fight with yourself and then proceed towards the purification of the Soul. Nothing can be achieved through external battles.”

3. Ahimsa is a Way of Life : Ahisma has been described as a way of life in Jain philosophy. A person can observe complete control over violence only when he knows about the various kinds and forms of violence. The Jain Sutras give a description of 108 types of violence that have been divided into four categories. In the first category, there are three levels of violence. Violence can be practised by self, can be made to be performed by the others or practised wishfully by the others. Man can practise violence through his heart, speech and body.

In the second category, the three tier violence becomes that of nine levels because it is practised through each of the media of heart, speech and body. In the next category, violence acquires 27 levels because there are three stages of violence-thoughts of violence, preparation for violence and then putting violence into practice. In the fourth category, the 27 level violence becomes the 108 level violence because it rises from any one of the 4 internal states of mind.

4. Ways to Escape Ahimsa : It is impossible to escape the various forms of violence. Still, the Jains observe several rules to escape from these in their lives. They walk barefoot so that no insect gets killed under their feet. They cover their mouth with a cloth so that no insect goes into their mouth. With this objective, they sieve water before drinking and do not have food after sunset. Jains mostly undertake trade as a profession and do not practise agriculture at all because they feel that during agricultural process a number of creatures get killed.

Jainism prohibits a person from consuming alcohol and intoxicants, eating flesh and fighting battles in order to prevent the thoughts of violence from entering one’s mind. By consuming these intoxicants, there is an arousal of lust and other vices in the body. This leads to a feeling of evil and causes violence. Consequently, man indulges in violence in carelessness. There is a restriction on the eating of flesh, so that to stop killing of animals and birds for food and participating in violence.

During war, a person feels proud in killing enemies, but according to Jainism killing is absolutely incorrect. It is clear from the abpve description, that in comparison to the other rules, more emphasis is laid on the principle of Ahimsa. Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain has aptly remarked, ‘ “The Ahimsite way of life is the sure panacea for all moral, social, economic and political ills. Ahimsa is the highest religion, and where there is Ahimsa, there is Victory.”

Question 8.
What is meant by Nine Truths of Jainism? Explain briefly.
Or
Which are the Nine Tatvas in Jainism? Discuss.
Or
Write a note on Nine Tatvas of Jainism.
Or
What do we learn from Nine Tatvas of Jainism?
Or
Describe the Nine Ratnas of Jainism.
Answer:
The Nine Truths or Tatvas hold a central position in Jaina philosophy. A person who desires to attain salvation should know about these Nine Truths.

These Nine Truths are :

• Jiva
• Ajiva
• Punya
• Papa
• Asarva
• Bandha
• Samvara
• Nirjara
• Moksha.

According to the Digambara sect there are seven truths. They do not consider Papa and Punya as separate, According to them, they take them as part of Asarva and Bandha. A brief description of these truths is as follows :

1. Jiva : The word Jiva means Atman (soul). It is a living entity. There are two types of Jiva in Jain philosophy. They are also called worldly creatures and free creatures. Wordly creatures are also called bonded creatures. This creature is trapped in the vicious cycle of transmigration and keeps taking birth again and again according to one’s actions and receives the good and bad fruit. A free creature is one that is free from rebirth. This creature is one with unlimited knowledge, unlimited power and unlimited qualities. This creature is free from the web of Karma.

2. Ajiva : Ajiva implies those non-living elements which have no life in them like books, paper, table and ink etc. As an example, Jiva expands in the body of the camel till it becomes as big as a camel and Jiva contracts in the body of the ant till it becomes as small as an ant. This Jiva is not visible but one can experience its presence on the basis of the actions of the body. But when the body ceases to exist, then the Jiva also becomes non-existent.

The Jiva acquires the form of the body that it occupies. Ajiva is of two types Rupi and Arupi. Rupi are those that are visible like chair, pen, pot etc. Arupi are those that are not visible like time, worry and happiness etc. There are 5 non-living elements of the Ajiva in Jain philosophy. A brief description of these is given as follows:

(a) Pudgala : Pudgala means elements or atoms. The Pudgala has four qualities of rupa, sparsh, rasa and gandh. The pudgala of agni have qualities of rupa (form), Pudgala of vayu have qualities of sparsh (touch) and Pudgala of prithvi have qualities of gandh (smell). There are two forms of Pudgala : anu rupa and skandha rupa. Anu rupa Pudgala are not worth consumption by the creatures whereas skandha rupa Pudgala are worth consumption by the creatures. The Pudgalas are considered to be the basic foundation of the creation of the entire materialistic world.

(b) Dharma : This element renders movement to the creatures and Pudgalas and aids their mutual cooperation. For example, fish needs water for its movement in the same manner, the creatures and pudgalas imperatively require Dharma for movement. There can be no movement without Dharma.

(c) Adharma : Its form and action are completely different from Dharma. It causes obstacles in the movement of the creatures and Pudgalas. But Adharma is not the exact opposite of Dharma. The obstacle in the movement of the creature by Adharma is considered helpful for the leisure of the creature.

(d) Akasha : Akasha means that place which houses all the expansive elements of Jiva, Pudgala, Dharma and Adharma. It is on the basis of the elements that one can assume the presence of the Akasha. According to Jain philosophy, there are two types of Akasha, Lokakasha and Alokakasha. Lokakasha is that Akasha in which the materialistic world is present and the Akasha present above this is called Alokakasha.

(e) Kala : Kala means time. It is not an expansive element. Its presence can be felt only through assumption. The Kala is considered to be the prime cause of changes in the world. The Kala is associated with the past, present and future. Kala is called the element of the beginning and end.

3. Punya : Punya is that Karma that is earned through good deeds. There are different ways of earning Punya. Giving food to the hungry, giving water to the thirsty, giving clothes to the naked, to care for others and serving them, speaking sweetly etc. are actions of Punya. There are 42 means of deserving Punya. Good health, financial prosperity, fame, good marital life, good relatives, having good friends, good education and appointment to high posts etc. are consequences of good Punya. Punya is considered to be an aid to the Self because it gives happiness.

4. Papa : Papa is considered to be the main cause for the bonds of a creature. Killing of creatures, telling lies, stealing, greed, attachment, pride, forgery, drug abuse and enemity etc. lead to an increase in the bulk of the Papa. The evils are subjected to great punishments. You must have seen that two real brothers born in the same house have great disparity in their lives. One may be designated at a high post and may acquire great fame.

The other flees from pillar to post, indulges in stealing and earns a bad name. Why does this happen? According to Jain philosophy, there is a reason for such a person earning Punya and Papa. An evil doer can never be happy and has to suffer grave problems in his life. Even his Soul keeps suffering. According to Jain Sutras, there are 82 different consequences of Papa (evil).

5. Asrava : There are uncountable karmic elements in the universe that the Soul attracts towards itself according to good and bad deeds. This action of entry is called Asrava. A man’s Karmas are included in a person’s Soul in the same manner as water enters a boat through a hole. Karma is the main cause for a creature’s bonds. Karmas are material.

Hence they do not enter the Jiva directly, they enter the Jiva with the help of the heart, thought and body. Karmas are of two types, good and bad. If good Karmas enter the Jiva, it acquires happiness and if bad Karmas enter the Jiva, then it experiences suffering. Hence, whether the Karmas are good or bad depends on the nature of a person.

6. Bandha : When the karmic matter veils the pure form of a creature, it gets impure. It becomes the cause of bondage of a creature. According to Jain philosophy, there are five reasons for going in this direction,

• Mithyadarshana : It means wrong belief,
• Avirati : It means lack of promise,
• Pramada : It means carelessness,
• Kashaya : It means lust,
• Yoga : It means the action of the body, heart and speech.

Bandhas are of four types,

• Prakriti : The nature of karmic elements attached to the Jiva.
• Sthiti : The time duration for which the karmic elements are attached to the Jiva.
• Anubhaga : The karmic elements are either harsh or soft in character.
• Pradesh Jiva : The number of particles in the karmic matter attached to the Jiva.

A Jiva entrapped in the vicious cycle of Karma is behaviourally destroyed and gets entrapped in bandhan. For this reason, he takes birth again and again and experiences imprisonment of the body.

7. Samvara : It is because of yoga that the karmic matter is attracted towards the Jiva. Hence it is extremely essential to stop this activity for the attainment of salvation. It is called Samvara. It is also called Asravanirodha which means to prevent the Karmas from entering our body. There are 57 ways to stop the Karma. These include self control, good thoughts, to avoid greed, attachment, pride, anger and evil deeds.

Because of these, a huge wall is erected around the Jiva that prevents the karmic elements from entering the Jiva. Just as it is feasible to stop the water flowing from a drain pipe by blocking the drain pipe, similarly it is possible to block the karmic elements from entering the Jiva through Samvara.

8. Nirjara : Nirjara means to remove the karmic elements from the Jiva. It is a major mean of destroying the karmic elements, accumulated by the Jiva. With Samvara, one can stop the growth and entry of Karmas in a Jiva. But the older Karmas that have been subjected to Asrava can be destroyed through Niijara. Nirjara involves meditation. Meditation destroys the karmic elements accumulated like fire and reduces them to ashes. In this manner when the veil of karmic elements is removed from the Jiva, then its pure form emerges. Just as a glass appears black when covered by a black cloth but when the cloth is removed, it retrieves its shine back.

9. Moksha : According to Jain philosophy, a man’s ultimate objective is attainment of Moksha or Nirvana. In this, the Jiva acquires freedom from all bonds. It is only with end of Karma, that man can attain Moksha. Hence Samvara and Nirjara is essential. To break the bond of Karmas, the Jains advocate to follow the Three Jewels of Jainism which are called Tri-Ratna. These are Right Belief, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. Moksha is the supreme objective of a Jiva. A person who attains Moksha is called siddha. Siddha is free from birth, death, joy and sorrow. He acquires immortal place in this universe.

Question 9.
Describe the importance of Five Mahavartas in Jainism.
Or
Discuss the five Mahavartas of Jainism.
Or
What is the importance of Five Mahavartas in Jainism? Elucidate.
Or
Describe the Five Anuvartas of Jainism.
Answer:
The Five Mahavartas of Jainism occupy a significant place. It is essential for every Jain to observe these rules. These rules are very hard for every Jain monk and nun. There is some relaxation in these for the householders. These rules are called Five Mahavartas in Jainism. These Mahavartas are also known as Anuvartas. A brief account of these is as follows :

1. Ahimsa : Jainism emphasises a lot on Ahimsa. Aacharanga Sutra emphasises on the importance of Ahimsa by saying, “One’s life is dear to everyone, all want happiness, no one desires sorrow, no one wants in excess, life is dear to everybody and all have a desire to live.” Hence, whatever is pleasurable for us is pleasurable for others as well. Violence is of two types : violence through the heart, and violence through Karma. Before violence comes in action or through Karma, violence first comes in one’s heart i.e. in one’s thoughts. Anger, pride, greed and fraud are forms of violence of the heart.

Hence, it is extremely important to purify the thoughts of the heart in order to avoid violence. According to Jainism, besides human beings, the Soul also resides in animals, stones and trees etc. Hence we should not give any trouble to the living or non-living beings. For this reason, the Jains walk barefoot, wear a cloth over the mouth, drink water after sieving and eat nothing after dark to avoid killing of any small creature. According to Harbans Singh and L.M. Joshi, “The doctrine of non-violence (ahimsa) is a cardinal principle of Jain religion.”

2. Satya : In Jainism great emphasis is laid on satya i.e. speaking of truth. We should always speak sweetly. By doing this one can cast its spell on the other person. One hurts its own self by speaking harsh, unpleasant and violent words. Such a person could never find solace. By speaking falsehood one increases its problems. There is no end to these problems. The consequence of falsehood is always disgracable. Therefore, we should never speak falsehood due to fear or due to any other cause. Therefore, we should think twice before speaking. We should not be angry with anybody.

In Jainism, it is emphasised that we should not put false blame on anybody. We should not deceive anybody. We should not waylay any honest person. We should not tie up any relation which is based on falsehood. We should never give false evidence in Panchayat or any other judicial court. Falsehood results in himsa (violence). Satya is the base of Ahimsa.

3. Asteya : The principle of Asteya is given special importance in Jainism. Asteya means not to steal. In Jainism theft is very encompassed. To steal a thing is a direct crime. On the other hand in Jainism if one uses a forgotten thing of others is also considered a theft. So we should not use the thing of any other person if it is not given by the owner. We shouldn’t enter the house of anybody unless called by the owner.

If allowed to enter we should not touch any thing kept in the house. We shouldn’t accept anything which is not given by the owner. We shouldn’t stay in anybody’s house unless told by the owner. Adulteration, abetment of theft, smuggling, use of false weights and measures, receiving stolen property and the like come under stealing. If a person commits theft once in his life time he borns in the house of poor. If he commits theft many times then he borns as a slave next time.

4. Aparigraha : In Jainism Aparigraha is given great importance. Aparigraha means non-attachment to worldly things. Generally it is seen that house holders used to accumulate more things than were required. It is not bad to accumulate the required things. But to accumulate them in large numbers is a sin. It deprives the other person of his right to have things. The more a person accumulates the more he remains mentally disturbed.

Today, men and nations are striving for enhancement of their wealth and territory at the cost of others. As a consequence the individual and national tensions are inceasing. The Jain monks and nuns are prohibited from taking more food clothes to wear and the like things than required. A person who strictly follows aparigraha attains Nirvana.

5. Brahmacharya : Brahmacharya is also given special importance in Jainism. It means to free oneself completely from sexual inclination. The Jain monks and nuns are strictly commanded to follow this rule. The Jain monks are strictly prohibited to come in contact with any women or talk with them. They should not even think of any women with whom they had any contact in the past even in their dreams. They should not visit any house where only a single lady lives. Similarly the Jain nuns are prohibited to think of men or to talk with them.

The house holder who abstains himself from the sexual contacts with all other women except his nuptial partner is observing brahmcharya. In Jainism sex passion is called an evil which ends life. Dr. K.C. Sogani aptly says, “The observance of these five vows is capable of bringing about individual as well as social progress. Thus, the Jaina faith and morals sum up the spiritual and moral living of the individual along with the social upliftment.”

Question 10.
Write about the main sects in Jainism.
Answer:
The Jains are divided into several sects. A few of the major sects have been briefly described as follows :

1. The Ajivika : The founder of the Ajivika sect was Goshala. He was the disciple of Lord Mahavira and got separated from him after 6 years. This sect was popular for its principle of niyati (luck). According to this, the destiny of every thing is pre¬determined. It cannot be changed by man’s efforts. This sect popularised by Goshala prospered till the 13th century and later it became non-existent.

2. The Digambara and Shvetambara Sects : The Digambara and Shvetambara sects were the most popular sects of Jainism. There was a terrible famine in Magadha during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. Hence Bhadrabahu, who was the leader of Jain monks went to Mysore (Karnataka) with a lot of monks. The monks who were left behind in Magadha appointed Sthoolbhadra as their leader. These monks organised a meeting in Pataliputra and gave their literature a new form.

They called this literature as Anga. Besides this, these monks gave up the practice of always being naked and started wearing white clothes. After 12 years, when Bhadrabahu came back to Magadha along with other monks they could not accept these changes. Consequently, the Jains were divided into two sects, the Digambara and Shvetambara. Digambara meant those who remained naked and Shvetambara meant those who wore white clothes. The main differences between the two sects are as follows :

1. The Digambaras remain naked while the Shvetambaras clad themselves in white clothes.
2. The Digambaras believe that women cannot attain salvation till they are born in the form of males. The Shvetambaras refute this principle. They feel that the women can attain salvation in this birth itself.
3. The Digambaras do not allow women to be a part of the Jain Sangha. On the other hand, the Shvetambara sect exerts no such restriction on the women. They say that Malli the 19th Tirthankara was a woman. The Digambaras refute this belief.
4. The Digambaras believe that Lord Mahavira did not get married. The Shvetambaras believe that Lord Mahavira was married. He had a daughter whose name was Priyadarshana.
5. Those belonging to the Digambara sect are of the view that the ascetics who attain enlightenment do not need any food whereas the Shvetambaras refute this.
6. The religious literature of Digambara and Shvetambara sects is different.
7. The idols of the Digambara sect are bare whereas those of Shvetambara sect are clad in clothes and they are decorated with ornaments.

3. Lonka Sect : The founder of this sect was Lonka Sa. He was a resident of Ahmedabad. In 1474 A.D., a Jain ascetic Jhanaji asked Lonka Sa to copy some religious Jain texts. While reading these texts, Lonka Sa realised that there was no mention of idol worship whereas the Jains had been indulging in idol worship for past so many centuries. Hence he vehemently opposed the prevalent system of idol worship in Jainism. This started a major controversy. Bhanaji was in agreement with the Lonka sect and thus became the first preacher (acharya) of Lonka sect.

4. Sthanakavasi : The founder of this sect was Viraji. He was a resident of Surat. The name of this new sect was Sthanakavasi because the saints of this sect lived in maths rather than temples. They led an extremely simple life. They did not believe in idol worship and pilgrimages.

5. Terapantha : The founder of this sect was Bhikanji of Marwar. It was established in 1706 A.D. There were 13 religious rules of this sect and hence the name of this sect came to be Terapanth. This sect also did not believe in idol worship. They emphasised strongly on meditation and discipline.

6. Taranapantha : This sect was established by Lord Tarana in Gwalior. The followers of this sect were against idol worship, the practices of religion and caste discrimination. They have separate temples in which the idols are not worshipped but the sacred texts are worshipped instead.

Question 11.
What are the main sects in Jainism? Explain their similarities and differences.
Or
Describe the sects Digambara and Shvetambra of Jainism.
Answer:
In Jainism great emphasis is laid on satya i.e. speaking of truth. We should always speak sweetly. By doing this one can cast its spell on the other person. One hurts its own self by speaking harsh, unpleasant and violent words. Such a person could never find solace. By speaking falsehood one increases its problems. There is no end to these problems. The consequence of falsehood is always disgracable. Therefore, we should never speak falsehood due to fear or due to any other cause. Therefore, we should think twice before speaking. We should not be angry with anybody.

In Jainism, it is emphasised that we should not put false blame on anybody. We should not deceive anybody. We should not waylay any honest person. We should not tie up any relation which is based on falsehood. We should never give false evidence in Panchayat or any other judicial court. Falsehood results in himsa (violence). Satya is the base of Ahimsa.

Question 12.
Explain the salient features of Jain Sangha.
Or
Discuss the Sangha discipline of Jainism.
Answer:
The Jain Sangha was established by Lord Mahavira in Pava. It appreciably contributed towards the growth of Jainism.

1. Member : Four kinds of people could join the Jain Sangha who were called monks (sharmana) and nuns (sadhvi) and laymen called upaska or sharavaka and laywomen called upasika or shravika. Monks and nuns were those, who had given up the materialistic world. Shravakas and shravikas were those who led a married life,

2. Initiation : Those people who wanted to join the Jain Sangha had to take permission from the parents and guardian. After this they had their head shaved off, took bath, wore white clothes and took an alms bowl for initiation by a major Jaip Acharya. This custom was called the Nishkarman Sanskara. Women too could join the Jain Sangha. The doors of the Jain Sangha were open for people of all castes. Only evil doers were not allowed to join the Jain Sangha.

3. Disciplined Life : After taking initiation, the monks and nuns had to lead a very disciplined life. They had to follow the Five Mahavratas of ahimsa, sunit, asteya, aparigriha and brahmacharya. They were prohibited from exercising violence on anyone from the heart, thought and body.

They were strictly prohibited from telling lies, stealing, keeping wealth with oneself, use of fragrant objects, shoes, umbrella, bed and chair etc. entering the others’ premises without permission, eating in the utensils of the household, excessive eating, eating after sunset, criticising someone, talking to a woman, staying at a house where a woman lived etc. Though married people were also asked to observe these rules, but not so strictly.

4. Daily Life : Each monk or nun divided his daily life into 8 parts. Of these, 4 parts were for study of the religious texts, 2 for meditation, 1 part for food consumption and 1 part for sleep. They ate their food after begging for it. They were prohibited from collecting alms from more than one house. All the members of Jain Sangha lived at one place during the four months of monsoon to study Jainism. During the rest of the eight months, they had to go to different places to preach Jainism.

5. Chief of the Jain Sangha : The chief of the Jain Sangha was called Acharya: He maintained control over all the monks of the Sangha. Only he had the right to render initiation, make member of the Sangha and award punishment to anyone. Only a very simple and a person of high character could be appointed to this post. The women had their separate Sanghas. Its chief was called Pravartini. Her main duty was to maintain discipline in the Sangha.

6. Role of Jain Sangha : The Jain Sangha played a vital role in the popularisation of Jainism in India. The monks and nuns who were working in these Sanghas left no stone unturned for the spread of Jainism. S.C. Ray Choudhary aptly writes, “In fact, it is mainly due to their efforts that Jainism took root into Indian soil and still survives.”

Question 13.
What is the language of Jain scriptures? Give preliminary information about Jain scriptures.
Or
Give preliminary information about the major Jain scriptures.
Or
Give information about the prominent scriptures of Jainism.
Or
What do you know almut the prominent scriptures of Jainism?
Or
Throw light on the prominent Jain scriptures.
Answer:
The Jains composed several religious texts. Of these, texts available to us are 45 in number. All these texts are associated with the Shvetambra sect of Jainism. These texts have been written in -either Prakrit or Ardhamagadhi which was the spoken language of common people of that time. These texts were given a written form in 5th century at a place called Vallabhi in Gujarat. These were completed by a popular Jain saint Devaridhi. These texts are divided into 6 parts.

Their names are :

• 12 Angas
• 12 Upangas
• 10 Prakirans
• 6 Chedasutras
• 4 Mulasutras
• 2 miscellaneous books.

A brief description of these is as follows :

1. The Twelve Angas : Of all the religious texts, the 12 Angas are considered to be the most sacred. A brief description and the names of these Angas are as given below :

• Aacharanga Sutra : It gives a description of the rules prescribed for the Jain monks and nuns. It also gives a description of the life of Mahavira.
• Sutrakritanga : It gives a description of the principles of Karma and Ahimsa and also about the sufferings of hell. Besides this, it also raises objection to the principles of the opposing religions with an objective to further strengthen the faith of the Jains in their religion.
• Sthananga : It gives a description of the various subjects of Jainism.
• Samavayanga : It gives a description of the Jain principles numericallly.
• Bhagvati Sutra : It is considered to be the most important text of the Jaina religious literature. It describes the Jain principles in question-answer form. These questions were put forward by the main disciple of Lord Mahavira i.e. Gautam Indrabhuti and were answered by Lord Mahavira.
• Jnatridharmakatha : It gives a description of the popular stories related to Jainism. These stories have been explained with instances.
• Upasakadasha : It gives a description of those 10 rich people of Lord Mahavira’s time who had become Mahavira’s disciples and those who attained salvation after great meditation.
• Antakriddasha : It gives a description of the lives of those Jain ascetics who attained salvation after great meditation.
• Anuttarapapatika : It also gives a description of the lives of some Jain hermits.
• Prashna Vyakarana : It gives a description of the five mahavratas and the five annuvratas.
• Vipaka Sutra : It describes the fruits of the good and evil deeds.
• Drishtivada : This part has now become non-existent.

From the other texts, one can get information related to this part on the basis of which one can interpret that it gives a brief description of the various principles.

2. The Twelve Upangas : Each Anga has an Upanga. It gives information on astrology, geography and universe etc. At certain places, there is a mention of historical events of all the twelve Upangas. The most popular Upanga is Rajapaseniya. It gives a description of the conversation between the Jain ascetic Kesha and a king called Payosa.

3. The Ten Prakirans : These give information about the various subjects of Jainism in prose form. These give important information about the life and preachings of Lord Mahavira.

4. The Six Chedasutras : These give a description of the behavioural norms set for the Jain monks and nuns. Of all the Chedasutras, the most popular one is Kalpasutra. It was composed by Bhadrabahu. It gives a detailed description of the life history of Lord Mahavira.

5. The Four Mulasutras : The four Mulasutras namely Uttaradhyayana, Avashyaka, Dashvaikalika and Pindaniryukti are considered valuable in Jain literature. They give a description of the stories related to Jainism and the moral teachings, rules of Jain Sangha and the life and teachings of some Jain asectics. They are in their original form.

6. Two Miscellanous Texts : These include texts by the name of Nandisutra and Anuyogadvara. They are a kind of encyclopaedia. These give information related to the various branches and religious principles of Jainism.

7. Books related with Digambara Sect : The Digambaras maintain that the original texts containing Mahavira’s teachings are lost.They revere only the four scriptures namely-Prathamanuyoga. Karananuyoga, Charananuyoga and Dravyanuyoga.

Question 14.
What is the legacy of Jainism to Indian Civilization?
Answer:
There is no doubt about the fact that Jainism could not prosper like Buddhism but still it left a great impact on the social, religious, cultural and political fields in India.

1. Legacy in the Social Field : The Jains played an important role in the social field. In the sixth century, the caste system became very stringent in Hinduism. People belonging to one caste despised people belonging to the other caste. The people of the Shudra caste were treated badly like animals. Mahavira vehemently opposed the caste system. He admitted people of every religion into Jainism. He preached mutual brotherhood and equality among people. Consequently, he was successful in eradicating mutual hatred prevalent among people to quite an extent. In this manner, the Jains gave a new form to Indian society.

2. Legacy in the Religious Field : The Jains coptributed appreciably towards the religious field. Jainism inspired people to lead a simple and pious life. There was no room for useless rituals and customs, yajnas and sacrifices etc. Because of the efforts of Jainism, several superstitions prevalent in the religious field were eradicated. Seeing the growing popularity of Jainism, the leaders of Hinduism made some important amendments in the religion in order to reform it.

3. Legacy in the Cultural Field : Jainism contributed greatly in the cultural field also. The principles of Jainism were written in their texts in Prakrit, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, Kannada and Tamil languages. Consequently, it gave a lot of encouragement to these regional languages. Though, it mainly describes the issues pertaining to religion, yet it also gives important information about the social and political condition. For this reason, these Jain texts are considered to be valuable source of Indian History.

The Jains constructed several influential and famous temples. Several attractive idols were placed in them. The Jain temples of Mount Abu in Rajasthan and Shravana Belagola in Karnataka are famous not only in India but the entire world. Besides these, the Jains constructed several popular stupas in India.

4. Legacy in the Field of Public Welfare : Lord Mahavira preached about social service among his disciples. For this reason, the Jains constructed several dharmashalas to give facilities to the people. To propagate education, the Jains established educational institutes, hospitals for human beings and animals and several other works of public welfare. Several of the educational institutes established by the Jains are popular even today. Free treatment is given to the poor sick people in the hospitals established by the Jains even today and so are the animals taken care of.

5. Legacy in the Political Field : Jainism lays a lot of emphasis on the principle of Ahimsa. It inspired the people to lead a peaceful life. Consequently, several kings stopped participating in battles so that the innocent people were not killed. They became peace loving. For this reason, India experienced peace and prosperity for quite some time but on the other hand it had an adverse impact on Indian polity. Due to lack of participation in battles the Indian army grew weak. Consequently, later they could not face the foreign invasions. For this reason, the Indians had to live under foreign rule for several years.

To conclude, we can say that the Jains gave valuable contribution in several fields of Indian society. In the end, we agree with the words of Dr. V.A. Sangve, “In fact, the most outstanding characteristic of Jains in India is their very impressive record of contributions to Indian culture. In comparison with the limited and small population of Jains, the achievements of Jains in enriching the various aspects of Indian culture are really great.”

Short Answer Type Questions (Type-1):

Question 1.
What do you mean by Tirthankara?
Answer:
Acharyas are called Tirthankara. Tirthankara means a guru who helps to cross the ocean of life. The jains believed in 24 Tirthankaras. The First Tirthankaras was Rishabhanatha. The 23rd Tirthankaras was Parshavanatha. He was born 250 ears before Lord Mahavira. The 24rd Tirthankaras was Lord Mahavira. He is msidered the actual founder of Jainism.

Question 2.
Parshavanatha.
Answer:
Parshavanatha was the 23th Tirthankara of Jainism. The teachings of Parshavanatha were :

1. Do not harm the living beings (ahimsa).
2. Do not tell lies (sunrita).
3. Do not take without giving, (asteya).
4. Do not desire any materialistic things (aparigraha). Around 777 B.C., he attained Nirvana at a mountain called Mount Sammeta.

Question 3.
Write a short note on Lord Mahavira.
Answer:
Lord Mahavira was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali in 599 B.C. The name of his father was Siddhartha and the name of his mother was Trishala. The childhood name of Mahavira was Vardhmana. Mahavira was married to a beautiful princess named Yashoda. Mahavira renounced the world at the age of 30. He got enlightenment after hard penance of 12 years. He preached his knowledge in order to remove darkness from the minds of people. Rajgriha, Vaishali, Kosala, Mithila, Videha and Anga were his famous preaching centres. He attained his salvation at Pava in 527 B.C.

Question 4.
Discuss about the teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Or
Teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Answer:
The teachings of Lord Mahavira were very simple and impressive. According to him, the ultimate aim of life is to attain salvation. Accordingly, he taught his followers to follow Tri-Ratnas :

• right belief
• right knowledge
• and right conduct.

He believed in hard penance. He laid more emphasis on non-violence. According to him, besides human beings and animals, we should not harm even birds, plants and trees. He believed in the doctrines of karma and transmigration of soul. He preached equality and universal brotherhood of mankind. He inspired the people to lead a simple and pure life. He believed in the worship of Tirthankaras.

Question 5.
What is meant by Tri-Ratnas? What is its importance?
Or
Write about the Tri-Ratnas of Jainism.
Answer:
According to Jainism, the ultimate aim of a man’s life is to attain salvation. In order to achieve it, it is utmost necessary for every person to follow Tri-Ratnas. These three Ratnas are right belief, right knowledge and right conduct. According to first Ratna, every man should have firm faith in 24 Tirthankaras, 9 truths and the Jain scriptures. According to second Ratna, the Jains should attain true and complete knowledge. It can be acquired through deep study of sermons of Tirthankaras. According to third Ratna, one should spend one’s life with right conduct taught by Jainism. All these three Ratnas go side by side.

Question 6.
What is the importance of AJijUqsa in Jainism?
Answer:
Jainism emphasises a lot on Ahimsa. Aacharanga Sutra emphasises on tl imnortance of Ahimsa bv savine. “One’s life is dear to evervone. all want hanDiness. one desires sorrow, no one wants in excess, life is dear to everybody and all have a desire to live.” Hence, whatever is pleasurable for us is pleasurable for others as well. The Soul also resides in animals, stones and trees etc. Hence we should not give any trouble to the living or non-living beings. For this reason, the Jains walk barefoot, wear a cloth over the mouth, drink water after sieving and eat nothing after dark to avoid killing of any small creature.

Question 7.
What is the importance of Karma Theory in Jain Philosophy?
Answer:
In Jainism, the Karma theoiy has a significant place. According to this theory, as soon as one has a good or a bad thought, it immediately attaches itself to the Jiva (Self) just as the dust particles stick themselves to the oily body. These Karmas are of eight types :

1. Gyanvamiya Karmas
2. Darshanvamiya Karmas
3. Vaidniya Karmas
4. Mohniya Karmas
5. Ayu Karmas
6. Naam Karmas
7. Gotra Karmas
8. Antriya Karmas.

Because of one’s Karmas, man is trapped in the vicious circle of transmigration. Man can obtain freedom by destroying one’s Karmas.

Question 8.
What is meant by Papa and Punya in the Jainism?
Answer:

• Papa : Papa is considered to be the main cause for the bonds of a creature. Killing of creatures, telling lies, stealing, greed, attachment, pride, forgery, drug abuse and enemity etc. lead to an increase in the bulk of the Papa. The evil doers are subjected to great punishments. According to Jain Sutras, there are 82 different consequences of Papa (evil).
• Punya : Punya is that Karma that is earned through good deeds. There are different ways of earning Punya. Giving food to the hungry, giving water to the thirsty, giving clothes to the naked, to care for others and serving them, speaking sweetly etc. are actions of Punya. There are 42 means of deserving Punya.

Question 9.
Write a note on Digambara and Svetambara.
Or
What do you understand by Digambara and Svetambara?
Answer:

• The followers of Digambara sect live naked whereas the followers of Svetambara sect wore white clothes.
• The Digambara sect does not allow women to join Jain Sanghas wheres Svetambara sect does not impose any such restriction.
• The followers of Digambara sect are of the opinion that women cannot get salvation unless they take birth as men.

The followers of Svetambara sect do not believe in this doctrine. They are of the view that women can get salvation in their present life.

Question 10.
Why could not Jainism become popular in India?
Answer:
In spite of its high ideals Jainism could not gain much popularity in India lue to many reasons. Firstly, Jainism lacked effective machinery to propagate and onvey its message to the common people. Secondly, though Jainism received royal

Question 3.
Describe any four features of Akal Purkh (God) in Sikhism.
Answer:

• Guru Nanak Dev Ji believed in one God only,
• God has two forms. He is Nirguna (without attributes) as well as Saguna (with attributes),
• By his order (Hukam) the universe came into existence,
• He is beyond the cycle of birth, death and rebirth.

Question 4.
What is the importance of remembering Divine Name in Sikhism?
Answer:
Remembering the Divine Name or Simran is considered to be the highest form of worship of God. Guru Nanak Dev Ji said that on one hand remembering the Divine Name eradicates all sins of the heart, on the other hand it becomes placid. For this reason, man’s sorrows come to an end. All his fears are dispelled. By remembering the Divine Name, a man’s works are accomplished easily because God himself helps him in all his works. A person who remembers the Divine Name of God, has a soul that is always gentle and fragrant like a lotus flower. A person who remembers the Divine Name is able to awim across the vicious circle of transmigration. Without Name, man’s life on this earth is futile.

Question 5.
What is the meaning of Honest Labour?
Answer:
Kirat means honest labour. Honest labour is extremely important. It is the ordain of the Absolute (Hukam). We observe everyday that every creature earns his livelihood through Kirat. Hence the need for honest labour is extremely essential for man because he is the head of all creatures. Kirat is essential to keep the body healthy that shelters in it the Supreme soul. A person who does not perform honest labour cannot keep his body fit. Such a person actually performs a sin against the Absolute. But he is strictly prohibited from earning means of theft, robbery, dacoity,- fraud, bribery and evil.

Question 6.
What is the importance of Sangat in Sikhism?
Answer:
Sangat or Sadh Sangat is crux of Sikhism. The foundation of this institution was laid by Guru Nanak Dev Ji at Kartarpur. Wherever he went, the Sangat was formed there. Sangat implies ‘a congregation of the Gurmu lovers where they praised God.’ Every woman or man without any discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour, religion, rich, poor etc. could join it. The basic principle of Sikhism lies in the belief that the God Himself resides in the Sangat. Thus the life of a person who is a part of the Sangat completely changes.

Question 7.
What is the importance of Pangat in Sikh Way of life?
Or
Write a short note on the Pangat.
Answer:
The institution of Pangat has a commendable role to play in the development f Sikhism. Guru Nanak Dev Ji had laid the foundation of this important institution i Kartarpur. Every woman or man without any discrimination on the basis of caste, religion, creed, rich or poor etc. could join the Pangak Everyone had equal rights to serve. Due to this reason, the feeling of mutual brotherhood among the Sikhs developed.

It gave respect to the lower castes which had been oppressed by the higher classes for centuries. The money for this Langar was donated by the Sikhs of the Guru. This helped them develop the habit of donation and charity. Due to the institution of Pangat, the popularity of Sikhism spread far and wide.

Question 8.
What is the importance of Sangat and Pangat in Sikhism? Elucidate.
Answer:
Sangat or Sadh Sangat is crux of Sikhism. The foundation of this institution was laid by Guru Nanak Dev Ji at Kartarpur. Wherever he went, the Sangat was formed there. Sangat implies ‘a congregation of the Gurmu lovers where they praised God.’ Every woman or man without any discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour, religion, rich, poor etc. could join it. The basic principle of Sikhism lies in the belief that the God Himself resides in the Sangat. Thus the life of a person who is a part of the Sangat completely changes.

The institution of Pangat has a commendable role to play in the development f Sikhism. Guru Nanak Dev Ji had laid the foundation of this important institution i Kartarpur. Every woman or man without any discrimination on the basis of caste, religion, creed, rich or poor etc. could join the Pangak Everyone had equal rights to serve. Due to this reason, the feeling of mutual brotherhood among the Sikhs developed.

It gave respect to the lower castes which had been oppressed by the higher classes for centuries. The money for this Langar was donated by the Sikhs of the Guru. This helped them develop the habit of donation and charity. Due to the institution of Pangat, the popularity of Sikhism spread far and wide.

Question 9.
Describe the concept of Hukam in Sikhism.
Answer:
Hukam is an important concept of Sikh philosophy. The word Hukam is derived from an Arabic word that means order, commandment or instruction. The Hukam of the Absolute is to be accepted as sweet as has been mentioned at several places in the Gurbani. Guru Nanak Dev Ji writes in the ‘Japji’ that the entire universe has been created in accordance to the Hukam of God. It is because of the Hukam that they become good or evil and receive joy or sorrow. They can acquire freedom from their sins or remain entrapped in the vicious circle of transmigration because of Hukam.

Question 10.
What is meant by Haumai in Sikhism?
Answer:
The concept of Haumai (ego) has been described again and again in Sikh philosophy. Haumai means ‘Ego’ or T. It is a boundary that separates a creature’s soul from the omnipotent Supreme Soul. It would be no exaggeration to call the Haumai of the individual as a powerful fort of T. Because of Haumai, man can form a world of his own with his thoughts. In it, the Haumai or his ego is very strong. Consequently, he loses his true individuality.

Question 11.
“Ego is deep rooted disease.” How?
Answer:
Haumai is a chronic disease, that when afflicts a person like cancer is difficult to cure. It is the creator of the five vices-lust, anger, greed, attachment and pride. Such a man tells lies of several kinds, indulges in extravagance and takes the help of several false acts. Consequently it gives rise to the evil. It takes such a frightening form that life turns hell. A man who is filled with Haumai distances himself from the Supreme Soul and remains entrapped in the vicious circle of birth and death.

Question 12.
What is the importance of Guru in the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev Ji?
Or
What was the concept of ‘Guru’ of Guru Nanak Dev Ji?
Answer:
Guru has an important place in Sikh philosophy. Sikh Gurus consider the ‘Guru’ extremely important to reach die’Almighty. According to them, Guru is tb true ladder to attain salvation. Without1 the Guru, man can see darkness all around. It is the Guru who helps an individual to move from darkness (ignorance) to light (enlightenment). A Guru helps a person to cure his diseases of attachment to maya and Haumai. It is he who describes’ the method of treading on the path of devotion by the recitation of Naam and Shabads A Guru is not possible without feelings of devotion and knowledge. A Guru can make the impossible possible and it can transform a person’s lifestyle completely.

Question 13.
What is the importance of Kirtan in Sikhism?
Or
Kirtan is very important in the Sikh way of life.
Answer:
The Kirtan holds an important position in Sikhism. It is considered to be the highest means of attainment of spiritualism. In almost all the traditions of Sikhism, Kirtan is performed. Kirtan means that form of singing in which there is praise of the Akal Purakh. Singing the Gurbani according to ragas is called Kirtan. It was Guru Nanak Dev Ji who started the practice of Kirtan in Sikhism. He was accompanied by Bhai Mardana Ji who throughout his travels used to play the Rabab at the time of Kirtan. Kirtan performed with a sense of love and devotion influences a man’s soul to the core.

This awakens the dead souls of people and renders them free of all sufferings and cleanses his heart of all evil. He remains engrossed in recitation of Nam. It humbles a person’s heart. His soul feels devoted and happy and his life emerges out to be successful. For this reason, Kirtan has often been referred to as invaluable.

Question 14.
Explain the importance of Seva in Sikhism.
Answer:
Special importance has been given to Seva in Sikh philosophy. There is no doubt that there has been a glorious description about Seva in every religion but the importance that has been given to it in Sikhism is far greater than any other religion. Seva is actually devotion of high order. It can prove to be fruitful only when it is performed without any selfish motive. A man doesn’t receive the privilege of performing Seva till he removes the feeling of Haumai.

Question 15.
What were the views of Sikh Gurus regarding Caste?
Or
Describe the views of Guru Nanak Sahib Ji regarding Caste System.
Answer:
During Guru Nanak Dev Ji’s itme, Hindu Society was not only divided into four major castes—Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra—but also divided into several sub-castes. The people belonging to higher castes took great pride in themselves md looked down upon the people of lower caste and inflicted great atrocities on them, ntouchability was quite prevalent in society. Guru Nanak Dev Ji vehemently opposed e caste system and untouchability. Guru Sahib said that in God’s court there is no estion of caste-creed but a calculation of ones Karmas only. Guru Sahib initiated ; practices of ‘Sangat’ and ‘Pangat’ to provide .a severe jolt to caste system.

Question 16.
Explain the significance of Ardaas (Prayer) in Sikhism.
Or
What is the significance of Ardaas (Prayer) in Sikhism?
Answer:
Though the Ardaas forms a part of all religions but it occupies a special position in Sikhism. The word Ardaas has been derived from a Persian word Araz Dast which means to request before someone. Ardaas is that key in Sikhism that opens the gates to the abode of God. The system of performing the Ardaas in Sikhism was initiated by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. There is no fixed time for Ardaas. It can be offered at anytime by anyone. An Ardaas performed sincerely definitely bears fruit. There are several instances for this in Sikh History.

Short Answer Type Questions (Type-2):

Question 1.
Write a short note on Lord Parshavanatha.
Answer:
Lord Parshavanatha was born 250 years before Lord Mahavira at the house of King Ashvasena in Banaras. The name of his mother was Vamadevi. He had a luxurious childhood. At the age of 30 years, Parshavanatha gave up all the pleasures of life and went out in search of true knowledge. He attained enlightenment after 83 days of meditation. He spent the rest of the 70 years of life in preaching. Around 777 B.C., he attained Nirvana at a mountain called Mount Sammeta. The teachings of Parshavanatha are called Chaturyama or the four pledges. These four pledges are :

• Do not harm the living beings (ahimsa).
• Do not tell lies (sunrita).
• Do not take without giving, (asteya).
• Do not desire any materialistic things (aparigraha).

Question 2.
Write a short note on Lord Mahavira.
Answer:
Lord Mahavira was the 24th Tirathankara of Jainism. He is considered as the real founder of Jainism. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali in 599 B.C. The name of his father was Siddhartha and the name of his mother was Trishala. The childhood name of Mahavira was Vardhmana. He was very meditative in his childhood. He took little interest in worldly affairs. Mahavira was married to a beautiful princess named Yashoda. A daughter was born to them and she was named Priyadarshana. Mahavira renounced the world at the age of 30. He got enlightenment after hard penance of 12 years.

He preached his knowledge in order to remove darkness from the minds of people. Rajgriha, Vaishali, Kosala, Mithila, Videha and Anga were his famous preaching centres. Mahavira laid emphasis on Tri-Ratnas, non-violence, hard penance and right conduct etc. He did not believe in yajnas, sacrifices, Vedas, Sanskrit language and the existence of God. He attained his salvation at Pava in 527 B.C. Undoubtedly, his contribution was invaluable for the development of Jainism.

Question 3.
Discuss about the teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Or
Discuss the pre-eminent teachings of Jainism.
Or
Discuss briefly the teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Or
What are the main teachings of Jainism?
Answer: The teachings of Lord Mahavira were very simple and impressive. According to him, the ultimate aim of life is to attain salvation. Accordingly, he taught his followers to follow Tri-Ratnas :

• right belief
• right knowledge
• and right conduct.

He believed in hard penance. He laid more emphasis on non-violence. According to him, besides human beings apd animals, we should not harm even birds, plants and trees. He believed in the doctfines of karma and transmigration of soul. He preached equality and universal brotherhood of mankind. He inspired the people to lead a simple and pure life. He condemned in strong words, the false rituals and yajnas which were prevalent in Hinduism.

He did not believe in the purity of Vedas and Sanskrit language. He preached in the common language of the people. He did not believe in the existence of God. He asserted that man is the architect of his own fate. He does not need any help from God. The man will get the reward of his deeds. He believed in worshipping Tirthankaras.

Question 4.
What is meant by Tri-Ratnas? What is its importance?
Or
Write about the Tri-Ratnas of Jainism.
Answer:
According to Jainism, the ultimate aim of a man’s life is to attain salvation. In order to achieve it, it is utmost necessary for every person to follow Tri-Ratnas. These three Ratnas are right belief, right knowledge and right conduct. According to first Ratna, every man should have firm faith in 24 Tirthankaras, 9 truths and the Jain scriptures. According to second Ratna, the Jains should attain true and complete knowledge. It can be acquired through deep study of sermons of Tirathankaras. There are two forms of this knowledge, direct and indirect.

The direct knowledge is that knowledge which is received by soul and indirect knowledge is that knowledge which is received through senses. According to third Ratna, one should spend one’s life with right conduct taught by Jainism. All these three Ratnas go side by side. The absence of anyone of these cannot lead a man to his destination. For example, oil, wick and fire are necessary for a lamp to give light. If anyone of these things is missing, it cannot give light.

Question 5.
What is the importance of Ahimsa in Jainism?
Answer:
Jainism emphasises a lot on Ahimsa. Aacharanga Sutra emphasises on the importance of Ahimsa by saying, “One’s life is dear to everyone, all want happiness, no one desires sorrow, no one wants in excess, life is dear to everybody and all have a desire to live.” Hence, whatever is pleasurable for us is pleasurable for others as well. Violence is of two types : violence through the heart and violence through Karma. Before violence comes in action or through Karma, violence first comes in one’s heart i.e. in one’s thoughts. Anger, pride, greed and fraud are forms of violence of the heart.

Hence, it is extremely important to purify the thoughts of the heart in order to avoid violence. The Soul also resides in animals, stones and trees etc. Hence we should not give any trouble to the living or non-living beings. For this reason, the Jains walk barefoot, wear a cloth over the mouth, drink water after sieving and eat nothing after dark to avoid killing of any small creature.

Question 6.
Write a short note on the Nine Truths of the Jainism.
Answer:
Jain philosophy teaches that there are Nine Truths.

These truths are :

1. Jiva—In Jain Philosophy, the Jiva means atman or souk It is eternal and absolute. It enjoys or suffers the fruits of its deeds.
2. Ajiva—It is the non-living element. It does not have the power to think. It has two types. One that has form (Rupi) and one that is formless (Arupi)
3. Punya—It is consequence of good actions. There are nine .ways to merit.
4. Papa—It is the main cause of the bondage of Jiva. Papa results in terrible punishments.
5. Asarva—It is the process of accumulation of deeds or karmic matter by the soul. The Karmas are of eight types.
6. Samvara—The process that prevents the Karma to come near the Self is called samvara. There are 57 ways to inhibit the Karma.
7. Bandha—It means bondage. It is the union of Jiva with Pudgala. There are 5 reasons responsible for bondage.
8. Nirjara—It means to eradicate. It helps to destroy Karma.
9. Moksha—In this, the creature is freed from the vicious circle of Karma. It is a state of complete peace wherein he attains freedom from all kinds of sorrows.

Question 7.
What is the importance of Karma Theory in Jain Philosophy?
Answer:
In Jainism, the Karma theory has a significant place. According to this theory, as soon as one has a good or a bad thought, it immediately attaches itself to the Jiva (Self) just as the dust particles stick themselves to the oily body. These Karmas are of -eight types :

1. Gyanvamiya Karmas—They inhibit the knowledge of Self.
2. Darshanvamiya Karmqs—They inhibit the desire of the Self.
3. Vaidniya Karmas— These actions lead to happiness and sorrow.
4. Mohniya Karmas—These are Karmas that entrap the Self in the vicious circle of attachment.
5. Ayu Karmas—These Karmas determine the age of a person.
6. Naam Karmas—These Karmas determine the personality of a person.
7. Gotra Karmas—These determine the gotra and hence his higher and lower status in society.
8. Antriya Karmas—These are Karmas that inhibit good Karmas. Because of one’s Karmas, man is trapped in the vicious circle of transmigration. Man can obtain freedom by destroying one’s Karmas.

Question 8.
What is meant by Jiva and Ajiva in the Jainism?
Or
What is meant by Jiva in Jainism?
Answer:
1. Jiva : The world Jiva means Soul. It is a living entity. There are two types pf Jiva in Jain philosophy. They are also called worldly creatures and free creatures. Worldly creatures are also called bonded creatures. This creature is trapped in the vicious cycle of transmigration and keeps taking birth again and again according to One’s actions and receives the good and bad fruit. A free creature is one that is free from rebirth. This creature is one with unlimited knowledge, unlimited power and unlimited qualities. This creature is free from the web of Karma.

(2) Ajiva : Ajiva implies those non-living elements which have no life in them like books, paper, table and ink etc. As an example, Jiva expands in the body of the camel till it becomes as big as a camel and Jiva contracts in the body of the ant till it becomes as small as an ant. This Jiva is not visible but one can experience its presence on the basis of the actions of the body. But when the body ceases to exist, then the Jiva also becomes non-existent. The Jiva acquires the form of the body that it occupies.

Question 9.
What is meant by Papa and Punya in the Jainism?
Answer:
1. Papa : Papa is considered to be the main cause for the bonds of a creature. Killing of creatures, telling lies, stealing, greed, attachment, pride, forgery, drug abuse and enemity etc. lead to an increase in the bulk of the Papa. The evil doers are subjected to great punishments. You must have seen that two real brothers born in the same house have great disparity in their lives. One may be designated at a high post and may acquire great fame. The other flees from pillar to post, indulges ih stealing and earns a bad name. Why does this happen?

According to Jain philosophy, there is a reason for such a person earning Punya and Papa. An evil doer can never be happy and has to suffer grave problems in his life. Even his Soul keeps suffering. According to Jain Sutras, there are 82 different consequences of Papa (evil).

2. Punya : Punya is that Karma that is earned through good deeds. There are different ways of earning Punya. Giving food to the hungry, giving water to the thirsty, giving clothes to the naked, to care for others and serving them, speaking sweetly etc. are actions of Punya. There are 42 means of deserving Punya. Good health, financial prosperity, fame, good marital life, good relatives, having good friends, good education and appointment to high posts etc. are consequences of good Punya. Punya is considered to be an aid to the Self because it gives happiness.

Question 10.
What was the importance of Mahavira’s teachings in the life of a common man?
Answer:
The teachings of Mahavira were very important for common people. At that time the caste system had become very rigid and complex in Hinduism. High caste people hated the low caste people. Mahavira opposed caste system. Mahavira opened the gates to people of different categories for his religion. This helped to overcome the feeling of mutual hatred and the feeling of brotherhood and affection spread among people. Mahavira strongly denounced the prevalent superstitions in the society.

Common people were against such rituals, so the “teachings of Mahavira had great impact on their minds. Because of Mahavira’s policy of non-violence, people started hating wars and became the votaries of peace. Mahavira advised the people to serve the people and the society as well. Consequently, the Jains built many inns, hospitals, schools and other institutions of public utility.

Question 11.
What type of life a Jain monk had to lead according to the teachings of Mahavira?
Answer:
According to the teachings of Mahavira, a Jain monk should lead a very pure life. Every monk had to take five vows :

1. He had to always speak the truth.
2. He had to follow the policy of non-violence.
3. He should not keep anything with him which he had not got in charity.
4. He could not keep any money with him.
5. He had to follow Brahmacharya i.e.,

he had to shun all pleasures. It was essential for a wear simple clothes and eat simple food. He was restrained from using umbrellas or perfumes. He was not allowed to talk to any woman. He was asked to speak softly so that he did not hurt anybody. He had to take care that he did not kill even germs while walking or eating.

Question 12.
Write a note on Digambara and Svetambara.
Or
What do you understand by Digambara and Svetambara?
Answer:
Among all the sects of Jainism the Digambara and Svetambara sects were most prominent. Digambara meant those who remained naked and Svetambara meant those who wore white clothes. The main differences between these two sects were as follows :

• The followers of Digambara sect live naked whereas the followers of Svetambara sect wore white clothes.
• The Digambara sect does not allow women to join Jain Sanghas wheres Svetambara sect does not impose any such restriction.
• The followers of Digambara sect are of the opinion that women cannot get salvation unless they take birth as men. The followers of Svetambara sect do not believe in this doctrine. They are of the view that women can get salvation in their present life.
• The followers of Digambara sect are of the opinion that Lord Mahavira did not marry. The followers of Svetambar sect believe that Lord Mahavira married and had a daughter whose name was Priyadarshna.
• The literature of Digambra and Svetambra sects is different.
• The idols of the Digambara sect are naked whereas the idols of Svetambara sect are dressed and decorated with ornaments.

Question 13.
Why could not Jainism become popular in India?
Answer:
In spite of its high ideals Jainism could not gain much popularity in India due to many reasons. Firstly, Jainism lacked effective machinery to propagate and convey its message to the common people. Secondly, though Jainism received royal patronage from the rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru and Kharvela yet this patronage was too meagre to elevate Jainism to the height of its glory. Thirdly, Jainism laid too much emphasis on hard penance, austerity and self-mortification. As these high ideals were too difficult to be practised by the common people so they did not join Jainism en- masse.

Fourthly, in Jainism too much emphasis is laid.on Ahimsa. Even the unconscious killing of an ant while walking was considered a sin. Such strictness and rigidity, instead of drawing people closer to Jainism, kept them away. Fifthly, the rise of Buddhism with its simple principles, was one of the major reasons of waning popularity of Jainism. Sixthly, with the passage of time Jainism adopted some principles of Hinduism. As a consequence Jainism found it difficult to maintain its separate identity.

Question 14.
The Jain Sources.
Answer:
The Jain sources throw ample light on the history of ancient India. The Jains composed several religious texts. These texts were written in Prakrit or Ardhamagadhi which was the common language of communication at that time. Twelve Angas of the Jains are considered most important and sacred. These throw light on the life of Mahavira and principles of Jainism. There are 12 Upangas in Jainism. The 10 Prakirans of Jainism give information about the life of Mahavira and his sermons. The 6 Chedasutras describe the rules for the Jain monks. The 4 Mulasutras are considered valuable for Jain literature. They give us important information about the stories related to Jainism.

Question 15.
What is the legacy of the Jainism to the Indian Civilization?
Answer:
Jainism gave valuable contribution to the Indian Civilization in many fields. Mahavira condemned caste-system vigorously. He included people of all castes in his religion. He preached equality and universal brotherhood of mankind. Consequently, the widespread hatred in society was removed to a large extent. Jainism inspired people to lead a simple and pure life. Due to its efforts, many superstitions prevalent in society came to an end.

Being influenced by the increasing fame of Jainism, the leaders of Hinduism introduced necessary reforms into it. The scholars of Jainism wrote their scriptures in many languages. These scriptures are invaluable sources of Indian history. The Jains got built many significant and famous temples. As a result, Indian architecture got a new impetus. Jainism got built several inns, educational institutions and hospitals etc. for the welfare of the people, which exist even today. Jainism gave the message of peace. It was against wars. It had adverse effect on the politics of India.

Answer in One Word to One Sentence:

Question 1.
What is meant by the word ‘Jain’?
Answer:
Conqueror.

Question 2.
By what name was Jainism originally known?
Answer:
Nirgrantha.

Question 3.
What is meant by Nirgrantha?
Answer:
Freedom from bondage.

Question 4.
By what other name the Jain Acharyas are known?
Answer:
Tirthankaras.

Question 5.
What is meant by Tirthankara?
Answer:
Tirthankara means builder of the bridge or the Guru who ferries across the ocean of the world.

Question 6.
Jainism had how many Tirthankaras?
Answer:
24 Tirthankaras.

Question 7.
Who was the first Jain Tirthankara?
Or
Name the first Tirthankara in Jainism.
Answer:
Rishabanatha.

Question 8.
Who was the 23rd Tirathankara of Jainism?
Answer:
Parshavanatha.

Question 9.
Where was Swami Parshavanatha born?
Answer:
Banaras.

Question 10.
Who was Swami Parshavanatha’s father?
Answer:
Swami Parshavanatha’s father was king Ashavasena of Banaras.

Question 11.
At what age Swami Parshavanatha renounced his home?
Answer:
30 years.

Question 12.
For how long did Parshavanatha went into, austere meditation?
Answer:
83 days.

Question 13.
How many principles of conduct did Parshavanatha enunciate?
Answer:
He enunciated four principles.

Question 14.
What are the teachings of Parshavanatha called?
Answer:
Chatuiyama.

Question 15.
Mention any one principle of Swami Parshavanatha.
Answer:
Do not tell a lie.

Question 16.
For how many years Lord Parshavanatha preached?
Answer:
Lord Parshavanatha preached for 70 years.

Question 17.
When did Lord Parshavanatha attain Nirvana?
Answer:
777 B.C.

Question 18.
Who was the founder of Jainism and as Tirathankar what was his place?
Answer:
Mahavir Swami was the founder of Jainism and he was 24th Tirathankar.

Question 19.
Who was the last Tirthankara of the Jains?
Or
Who was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jains?
Answer:
Swami Mahavira.

Question 20.
When and where was Lord Mahavira born?
Answer:
599 B.C. at Kundagrama.

Question 21.
Who was the father of Lord Mahavira?
Answer:
Siddhartha.

Question 22.
What was the name of Lord Mahavira’s mother?
Answer:
Trishla.

Question 23.
How many dreams Trishla had before Lord Mahavira was born?
Answer:
14.

Question 24.
What was Lord Mahavira’s original name?
Answer:
Vardhmana.

Question 25.
To which clan did Lord Mahavira belong?
Answer:
Jantrika.

Question 26.
To whom was Lord Mahavira married?
Answer:
Yashoda.

Question 27.
What was the name of Mahavira’s daughter?
Answer:
Priyadarshana.

Question 28.
What was Mahavira’s age at the time of renunciation?
Answer:
30 years.

Question 29.
For how many years Lord Mahavira meditated?
Answer:
12 years.

Question 30.
When did Lord Mahavira attain enlightenment?
Answer:
At the age of 42.

Question 31.
What is meant by Kevala Jnana?
Answer:
Supreme truth.

Question 32.
For how long Lord Mahavira preached?
Answer:
30 years.

Question 33.
Mention any two famous centres of Mahavira’s preachings.
Answer:

• Rajgriha,
• Vaishali.

Question 34.
When did Lord Mahavira attain Nirvana?
Answer:
527 B.C.

Question 35.
Where did Lord Mahavira attain Nirvana?
Answer:
Pava.

Question 36.
At what age Lord Mahavira attain Nirvana?
Answer:
72 years.

Question 37.
Give the main teaching of Jainism.
Answer:
It believed in Ahimsa.

Question 38.
With which religion Tri-Ratnas are associated?
Answer:
Tri-Ratnas are associated with Jainism.

Question 39.
Mention Jainism’s Tri-Ratnas.
Or
What are the Tri-Ratnas of Jainism?
Answer:

• Right faith,
• Right knowledge,
• Right conduct.

Question 40.
Who introduced the principle of Brahmacharya in Jainism?
Answer:
Lord Mahavira.

Question 41.
How many truths does Jainism admit?
Or
What are the basic elements of Jain philosophy?
Answer:
9.

Question 42.
Mention two truths of Jainism.
Answer:
Papa (Sin) and Punya (Virtue).

Question 43.
How is Atman designated in Jainism?
Answer:
Jiva.

Question 44.
What are the two forms of Ajiva in Jainism?
Answer:

• Rupi,
• Arupi.

Question 45.
What was the process which prevented Karma to come near the self?
Answer:
Samvara.

Question 46.
What is meant by Asarva?
Answer:
It is a process by which the soul accumulates the Karmas within.

Question 47.
What according to Jainism Pudgala mean?
Answer:
Elements or atoms.

Question 48.
According to jainism there are how many Karmas?
Answer:
8.

Question 49.
Mention any one type of Karmas mentioned by Jainism.
Answer:
Jnanavamiya Karma.

Question 50.
What according to Jain philosophy Jivd?
Answer:
Soul.

Question 51.
What according to Jain philosophy Ajiva mean?
Answer:
Inanimate.

Question 52.
How many types of violence are mentioned in Jain philosophy?
Answer:
108.

Question 53.
How many ways are for acquiring punya according to Jainism?
Answer:
42.

Question 54.
How many consequences one faces due to Papa (Vice)?
Answer:
It results in 82 consequences.

Question 55.
With which religion Anekantvad (manyness) is associated?
Answer:
It is related with Jainism.

Question 56.
According to Jainism how many Anuvartas man should observe in life?
Answer:
Man should observe five Anuvartas.

Question 57.
What according to Jainism Nirvana mean?
Answer:
Nirvana means freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth.

Question 58.
Why is Jainism called atheism?
Answer:
It is because Jainism does not believe in the existence of God.

Question 59.
Who was the founder of Ajivika sect?
Answer:
Goshal.

Question 60.
What was the main principle of Ajivika?
Answer:
Ajivika believed in pre-determined destiny.

Question 61.
Mention two principal sects of Jains.
Answer:

• Digambaras,
• Shvetambaras.

Question 62.
What does Shvetambara mean?
Answer:
The sect that wore white clothes.

Question 63.
What does Digambara mean?
Answer:
One who remains naked.

Question 64.
Who was Lonka Sa?
Answer:
He was the leader of Lonka Sa sect of Jainism.

Question 65.
Who was the founder of Sthanakavasi sect?
Answer:
Viraji.

Question 66.
Who was the founder of Terapantha sect?
Answer:
Bhikhanji.

Question 67.
How many categories of members the Jain Sangha had?
Answer:
Four.

Question 68.
Who were not permitted to join Jain Sangha?
Answer:
Evil doers.

Question 69.
What were male and female Jain Sangha members called?
Answer:
Bhikshus and Bhikshunis.

Question 70.
What is the language of Jain Holy Texts?
Answer:
It is Prakrit or Ardhamaghdi.

Question 71.
Which is the holiest Jain scripture?
Answer:
Twelve Angas.

Question 72.
Mention any two Jain Angas.
Answer:

• Acharangasutra,
• Bhagvatisutra.

Question 73.
Which Jain Sutra prescribes rules for Jain monks?
Answer:
Acharangasutra.

Question 74.
How many Upangas Jain religion has?
Answer:
12 Upangas.

Question 75.
Who wrote Kalpasutra?
Answer:
Bhadrabahu.

Question 76.
What is the subject of Kalpasutra?
Answer:
It gives a detailed history of Lord Mahavira.

Question 77.
How many Chedasutras are in Jainism?
Answer:
Jainism has 6 Chedasutras.

Question 78.
How many Mulasutras Jainism has?
Answer:
4.

Question 79.
How many books on Digambara sect are available?
Answer:
Four.

Question 80.
Mention any one Digambara related books.
Answer:
Prathamanuyoga.

Fill in the Blanks :

1. Jainism was originally called …………….
Answer:
Nirgrantha

2. The total number of Jain Tirathankaras is ……………..
Answer:
24

3. The first Tirathankara of Jainism is …………….
Answer:
Rishabanatha

4. …………… was the 23rd Tirathankara of Jgjnism.
Answer:
Parshavanatha.

5. ………….. was the 24th and last Tirathankara of Jainism.
Answer:
Swami Mahavira.

6. Swami Mahavira was born in …………..
Answer:
599 B.C.

7. …………… was the mother of Swami Mahavira.
Answer:
Trishla.

8. Swami Mahavira’s mother had ………….. dreams before his birth.
Answer:
14.

9. The name of Swami Mahavira’s daughter was …………..
Answer:
Priyadarshana.

10. Mahavira was …………… years old at the time of enlightenment.
Answer:
42.

11. Lord Mahavira attained Nirvana in …………
Answer:
527 B.C.

12. Jainism believed in ……………. Ratans (Jewels).
Answer:
Three.

13 introduced the principle of Brahmacharya in Jainism.
Answer:
Lord Mahavira.

14. Jainism believed in …………… truths.
Answer:
nine.

15. According to Jainism, …………… is a process by which the soul accumulates the Karmas within.
Answer:
Asarava.

16. Jainism believed in …………….. types of Karmas.
Answer:
8.

17. Anekantvad is also called as …………..
Answer:
Sayadwad.

18. Jainism believed in observing ……………. Anuvartas.
Answer:
five.

19. According to Jain religion, the main aim of human life is the attainment of ………….
Answer:
Nirvana.

20. According to Jainism, Pudgala means …………….
Answer:
Atoms (elements).

21. The founder of Ajivika sect was …………..
Answer:
Goshal.

22. Ajivika sect believed in predetermined …………..
Answer:
destiny.

23. The sect that wore white clothes were called …………
Answer:
Shvetambara.

24. …………… was the leader of Lonka sect.
Answer:
Lonk Sa.

25. ………….. was the founder of Terapantha sect.
Answer:
Bhikhanji.

26. The chief of the Jain Sangha was called …………..
Answer:
Acharya.

27. Jain Religions has …………… Angas.
Answer:
12.

True Or False:

1. Jainism believes in 20 Tirathankars.
Answer:
False

2. The first Tirathankar of Jain religion was Vimala.
Answer:
False

3. Lord Parshavanatha was the 23rd Tirathankar of the Jainism.
Answer:
True

4. Lord Parshavanatha got enlightenment after 23 days of vigrous meditation.
Answer:
False

5. Swami Parshavanatha’s teachings are called Chaturyama.
Answer:
True

6. Lord Mahavira was the 24th Tirathankar of Jainism.
Answer:
True

7. Lord Mahavira was bom in 567 B.C.
Answer:
False

8. The childhood name of Swami Mahavira was Vardhmana.
Answer:
True

9. The name of the mother of Swami Mahavira was Mahamaya.
Answer:
False

10. Lord Mahavira was 42 years old at the time of enlightenment.
Answer:
True

11. Lord Mahavira got Nirvana at Pava.
Answer:
True

12. Jainism have belief in Tri-Ratnas.
Answer:
True

13. Jainism does not have faith in Ahimsa.
Answer:
False

14. Jain philosophy teaches that there are Nine Tatvas.
Answer:
True

15. In Jainism, three karmas are significant.
Answer:
False

16. According to Jain religion, a man should follow five Annuvartas in his life.
Answer:
True

17. According to Jain Religion, the main aim of human life is the attainment of Nirvana.
Answer:
True

18. Right knowledge is the foundation of right belief as per Jainism.
Answer:
True

19. The Jains give five types of knowledge.
Answer:
True

20. Jainism believes in eight types of violence.
Answer:
False

21. The word Jiva means Atman (soul) in Jain philosophy.
Answer:
True

22. There are 42 means of attaining Punya, according to Jaina philosphy.
Answer:
True

23. Jainism professes that there are 57 ways to stop the Karma.
Answer:
True

24. According to Jainism, man should follow five Annuvartas.
Answer:
True

25. The Ajivika sect believed in the principle of Niyati (luck).
Answer:
True

26. The founder of Taranapantha was Bhikanji.
Answer:
False

27. The founder of Sthanakavasi was Viraji.
Answer:
True

28. Of all the religious texts of the Jains, 12 Angas are considered to be the most important.
Answer:
True

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Jainism believed in how many Tirathankars?
(a) 20
(b) 23
(c) 24
(d) 25
Answer:
(c) 24

2. Who was the First Tirathankar?
(a) Parshavanatha
(b) Mahavira
(c) Vimala
(d) Rishabhanatha
Answer:
(d) Rishabhanatha

3. Who was 23rd Tirathankar of Jainism?
(a) Vimala
(b) Ananta
(c) Rishabhanatha
(d) Paeshavanatha
Answer:
(d) Paeshavanatha

4. Who was 24th Tirathankar?
(a) Abhinandana
(b) Mahavira
(c) Pushpadanta
(d) Ajita
Answer:
(b) Mahavira

5. When was Lord Mahavira born?
(a) 566 B.C.
(b) 567 B.C.
(c) 569 B.C.
(d) 599 B.C.
Answer:
(d) 599 B.C.

6. Where was Lord Mahavira born?
(a) Lumbini
(b) Kundagrama
(c) Kushinagra
(d) Kapila Vastu
Answer:
(b) Kundagrama

7. What was the name of the father of Lord Mahavira?
(a) Siddhartha
(b) Rahul
(c) Vardhamana
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Siddhartha

8. What was the name of Swami Mahavira’s mother?
(a) Trishala
(b) Yashodhara
(c) Mahamaya
(d) Prajapati Gautmi
Answer:
(a) Trishala

9. How many dreams were seen by Lord Mahavira’s mother before his birth?
(a) 8
(b) 10
(c) 12
(d) 14
Answer:
(d) 14

10. What was the childhood name of Lord Mahavira?
(a) Vardhmana
(b) Siddhartha
(c) Rahul
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Vardhmana

11. What was the age of Swami Mahavira at the time of enlightenment?
(a) 20 years
(b) 30 years
(c) 35 years
(d) 42 years
Answer:
(d) 42 years

12. Where was Swami Mahavira enlightened?
(a) Jrimbhikagrama
(b) Bodh Gaya
(c) Vaishali
(d) Kundagrama
Answer:
(a) Jrimbhikagrama

13. Which one of the following was not the preaching centres of Lord Mahavira?
(a) Rajgriha
(b) Vaishali
(c) Angla
(d) Purushpur
Answer:
(d) Purushpur

14. Where did Mahavira attain Nirvana?
(a) Videha
(b) Anga
(c) Rajgriha
(d) Pava
Answer:
(d) Pava

15. What was the age of Mahavira at the time of Nirvana?
(a) 60 years
(b) 62 years
(c) 72 years
(d) 80 years
Answer:
(c) 72 years

16. Which of the following religion believed in Tri-Ratana?
(a) Buddhism
(b) Jainism
(c) Islam
(d) Parsi.
Answer:
(b) Jainism

17. How many truths Jainism believed?
(a) 3
(b) 5
(c) 7
(d) 9
Answer:
(d) 9

18. According to Jainism, what is the main cause of the bondage of Jiva?
(a) Papa
(b) Asrava
(c) Moksha
(d) Ajiva
Answer:
(a) Papa

19. Which one of the following is not a preaching of Lord Mahavira?
(a) Belief in ahimsa
(b) Belief in karma philosophy
(c) Belief in equality
(d) Belief in God
Answer:
(d) Belief in God

20. Jainism believed in how many Anuvartas?
(a) 3
(b) 5
(c) 7
(d) 9
Answer:
(b) 5

21. How many types of violence are mentioned in Jain philosophy?
(a) 2
(b) 3
(c) 4
(d) 5
Answer:
(a) 2

22. Which element renders movement to the creatures and Pudgalas?
(a) Pudgala
(b) Dharma
(c) Adharma
(d) Papa
Answer:
(b) Dharma

23. Who was the founder of Ajivika sect?
(a) Goshala
(b) Swami Mahavira
(c) Veeraji
(d) BhikhanJi
Answer:
(a) Goshala

24. Which of the following sect is not associated with Jainism?
(a) Digambara
(b) Shvetambara
(c) Lonka
(d) Mahayana
Answer:
(d) Mahayana

25. Which of the following religious text is not associated with Jainism?
(a) Deepvansha
(b) Kalpasutra
(c) Bhagvati Sutra
(d) Aacharanga Sutra
Answer:
(a) Deepvansha

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 9 Social Movements Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 9 Social Movements

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The movement which aims to remove social evils is known as
(a) Reform movement
(b) Revivalist movement
(c) Revolutionary movement
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Reform movement

2. Who played an important role in the Chipko movement?
(a) Chandi Prasad Bhatt
(b) Lai Bahadur Shastri
(c) Medha Patkar
(d) Arundhati Roy
Answer:
(a) Chandi Prasad Bhatt

3. Who was awarded ‘Padma Vibhushan’ for his contribution to the Chipko movement?
(a) Medha Patkar
(b) Sunder Lai Bahuguna
(c) Chandi Prasad Bhatt
(d) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Answer:
(b) Sunder Lai Bahuguna

4. Who started Satya Shodhak Movement?
(a) Joti Rao Phule
(b) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
(c) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
(d) Dr.B.R. Ambedkar
Answer:
(a) Joti Rao Phule

5. Who started Mahar Movement?
(a) Joti Rao Phule
(b) Dr. B.R. *Ambedkar
(c) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
(d) Sunder Lai Bahuguna.
Answer:
(b)Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

6. With whose efforts, Sati Pratha was declared illegal?
(a) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
(b) Dr. Ambedkar
(c) Joti Rao Phule
(d) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Answer:
(a) Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Dr, Ambedkar belonged to …………… caste.
Answer:
Mahar

2. Satya Shodhak Samaj was established in …………………. A.D.
Answer:
1873

3. ………………….. started Self Respect Movement.
Answer:
Periyar Ramaswami

4. Sree Narayan Guru belonged to ………………. caste.
Answer:
Izava

5. Majdoor Mahajan Sabha was started by ………………..
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi

True/False:

1. Dr. Ambedkar adopted Jainism.
Answer:
False

2. Periyar Ramaswami started Self Respect Movement in Kerala.
Answer:
False

3. Satya Shodhak Samaj was started in Maharashtra.
Answer:
True

4. All India trade Union congress was started in 1920 A.D.
Answer:
True

5. Kisan Sahha was started in 1930 A.D.
Answer:
True

6. Brahmo Samaj was started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
Answer:
True

One Word/One Line Questions Answers:

Question 1.
Who is known as the father of modern India?
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy is known as the father of modern India.

Question 2.
When and who used the word social movement the first time?
Answer:
German Scholar Lorenz Van Stein was the one who used this term in 1850 A.D. in his book ‘History of the French Social Movement from 1789 to the Present’. Question 3. When did the French and Russian revolutions take place?
Answer:
The French revolution took place in 1789 A.D. and the Russian revolution took place in 1917 A.D.

Question 4.
Give one necessary element of social movement.
Answer:
Collective consciousness is one of the necessary element of social movement.

Question 5.
What is the main objective of social movement?
Answer:
Main objective of social movement is to replace the old system by establishing new system.

Question 6.
Which movement brings sudden change in society?
Answer:
Revolutionary movement brings sudden change in society.

Question 7.
When and who started Satya Shodhak Samaj?
Answer:
Jyoti Rao Phule started Satya Shodhak in 1873 A.D.

Question 8.
What was the major issue of Satya Shodhak Samaj?
Answer:
Major issue of Satya Shddhak Samaj was to end every type of authority of Brahmins.

Question 9.
When, where and who started Sree Narayan Dharam Paripalan movement?
Answer:
This movement was started by Sree Narayan Guru in 1895 A.D. in Kerala.

Question 10.
Why was Sree Narayan Dharam Paripalan Movement started?
Answer:
To uplift the social status of Izava caste and to remove the evil like untouchability.

Question 11.
When, where and who started Self Respect Movement?
Answer:
Self Respect Movement was started by Periyar E.V. Ramaswami in 1925 A.D. in Tamil Nadu.

Question 12.
What was the major objective of Self Respect Movement?
Answer:
To arose the sense of self respect among backward castes in caste based society.

Question 13.
When and which religion was adopted by Dr. Ambedkar?
Answer:
Dr. Ambedkar adopted Buddhism in 1956 A.D.

Question 14.
What is included in class based movements?
Answer:
Worker’s movement and Peasant’s movement are included in class based movements.

Question 15. Who established Mazdoor Mahajan Sangh?
Answer:
Mazdoor Mahajan Singh was established by Mahatma Gandhi.

Question 16.
When and where was All India Trade Union Congress established?
Answer:
It was established at Bombay in 1920 and Lala Lajpat Rai was its first President.

Question 17.
Where did Indigo rebellion take place in 1866-68?
Answer:
In 1866-68, Indigo rebellion take place in Darbhanga and Champaran.

Question 18.
Where were Peasant movements started?
Answer:
Peasant movements were mainly started in Punjab.

Question 19.
Who helped in removing Sati Pratha from society?
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy with the help of Lord William Bentick helped in removing Sati Pratha from society.

Question 20.
When was SEWA Bank started?
Answer:
SEWA Bank was started in 1974 A.D.

Question 21.
When and where was Chipko Movement started?
Answer:
Chipko movement was started in 1973 A.D. in the Garhwal region of Uttrakhand.

Question 22.
Who were the major leaders of Chipko movement?
Answer:
Major leaders of Chipko movement were Cha’ndi Prasad Bhatt, Gaura Devi and Sunder Lai Bahuguna.

Question 23.
When and where was Appiko movement started?
Answer:
Appiko movement was started in 1973 in Karnataka.

Question 24.
Why was Narmada Bachao movement started?
Answer:
It was started in Gujarat to save environment and to place the displaced persons.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What are social movements?
Or
Social Movement.
Answer:
There are certain unnecessary conditions in society which are going on from the ages. Under these circumstances, few people collectively try to change the social system. Such collective efforts are known as social movements.

Question 2.
Give two features of social movements.
Answer:

• Collective consciousness is the major feature of social movements. The sense of unity motivates the people to take part in it.
• Social movement runs with an ideology. Without definite ideology, movement cannot start.

Question 3.
Satya Shodhak Movement.
Answer:
This was a non-Brahmin movement started by Jyotiba Phule through Satya Shodhak Samaj. He was of the view that according to traditions, Brahmins have established authority. Such authority should be removed and lower castes should be uplifted.

Question 4.
Sree Narayan Dharam Paripalan movement.
Answer:
This movement was started by Sree Narayan Guru in Kerala. He himself belonged to Izava community which was considered a lower caste. He wanted to eliminate untouchability and to establish such temples which are open for all.

Question 5.
Self-Respect Movement.
Answer:
This movement was started in 1925 by Periyar Ramaswamy in Tamilnadu-. Major objective of this movement was to uplift lower castes and to arose self respect for them. He started this movement against the social theory of Dharma and Karma.

Question 6.
Mahar Caste.
Answer:
Mahar Caste was a lower caste of Maharashtra. Before adopting Buddhism, it was one of the major part of Maharashtra’s population. Their socio-economic status was quite low. They lived separately in Maharashtra and it was considered that their touch will impure others. They did menial jobs.

Question 7.
Indigo movement.
Answer:
Indigo movement was mainly started in Darbha’nga and Champaran districts of Bihar because the British greatly exploited the Indigo planters. They were forced to grow indigo and sell it at cheap rates. Planters were fed up with this exploitation and they started these movements.

Question 8.
Brahmo Samaj.
Answer:
Brahmo Samaj was started in 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy at Calcutta. It was greatly influenced by the western ideas. It did a lot against Sati system and that’s why the British government declared it illegal. It also gave stress on women education and right of property for women.

Question 9.
Environment movement.
Answer:
To save our environment from getting polluted, many reform movements were initiated in our country. Many people participated in these and saved the environment. Chipko movement, Appiko movement, Narmada Bachao Andolan are few of its examples.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Which changes could be brought with the help of socio-reform movements?
Answer:
India is a welfare state in which every one gets equal opportunity. The main objective of welfare state is to make life of the people happy. But this could be possible if all the existing beliefs and evils of society could be removed. Only socio¬reform movements can remove them. But nothing can be obtained only by making law. For this reforms are necessary in society. For example, laws are there for child marriage, dowry system, child labour etc., but these things are common in our country. All these things are obstacles in our country. If we want to develop our society then socio-reform movements are very much necessary. That’s why socio-reform movements are necessary to bring changes in society.

Question 2.
Give four features of social movements.
Answer:

• Social movements are always anti-social.
• Social movements are always planned and deliberate efforts.
• Their main objective is to bring reforms in society.
• Collective efforts are required in it because one person cannot bring changes in society.

Question 3.
What is the nature of social movements?
Answer:

• Social movements are not institutions because institutions are permanent and traditional and are considered a necessary aspect of the culture. These movements come to an end themselves after the achievement of their objective.
• Social movements are not associations as well because associations have their own constitutions. This movement is generally informal, unorganised and is against traditions.
• Social movements are neither pressure or sectional groups because these movements demand the changes in social norms.

Question 4.
Explain the stages of social movement.
Answer:

• At the first stage, there is discontentment, among the people. Without discontentment, movement cannot start. Dissatisfaction is the major cause of concern at first stage.
• The second stage is also known as the popular stage and people’s dissatisfaction leads to collective mobilisation. The leader promises with them to remove their problems.
• Third stage is known as formalisation stage. The organisation of movement clarifies its ideology and if it is accepted, the collective action takes place. It leads to the beginning of movement.
• The fourth stage is of institutionalisation when the movement becomes crystallised. The goal of the movement is accepted in that society.
• Fifth stage is the dissolution of the movement. Sometimes, after the attainment of objectives, movement itself comes to an end or sometimes the movement itself fades away.

Question 5.
Satya Shodhak Movement.
Answer:
Satya Shodhak movement was a non—Brahmin movement. It was represented by Satya Shodhak Samaj which was started by Jyoti Rao Phule in 1873 A.D. Jyoti Rao phule belonged to Phul Mali caste. Most of the members of this caste were gardners who cultivated flowers, fruits and vegetables. Phule and his associates were of the view that the people of Maharashtra are divided in two ways. On one side there are Brahmins and people of lower castes are on the other side. Brahmins ieployed their traditional religions authority and newly acquired powers as officials marriage, dowry system, child labour etc., but these things are common in our country. All these things are obstacles in our country. If we want to develop our society then socio-reform movements are very much necessary. That’s why socio-reform movements are necessary to bring changes in society.

Question 2.
Give four features of social movements.
Answer:

• Social movements are always anti social.
• Social movements are always planned and deliberate efforts.
• Their main objective is to bring reforms in society.
• Collective efforts are required in it because one person cannot bring changes in society.

Question 3.
What is the nature of social movements?
Answer:

• Social movements are not institutions because institutions are permanent and traditional and are considered a necessary aspect of the culture. These movements come to an end themselves after the. achievement of their objective.
• Social movements pre not associations as well because associations have their own constitutions. This movement is generally informal, unorganised and is against traditions.
• Social movements are neither pressure or sectional groups because these movements demand the changes in social norms.

Question 4.
Explain the stages of social movement.
Answer:

• At the first stage, there is discontentment among the people. Without discontentment, movement cannot start. Dissatisfaction is the major cause of concern at first stage.
• The second stage is also known as the popular stage and people’s dissatisfaction leads to collective mobilisation. The leader promises with them to remove’their problems.
• Third stage is known as formalisation stage. The organisation of movement clarifies its ideology and if it is accepted, the collective action takes place. It leads to the beginning of movement.
• The fourth stage is of institutionalisation when the movement becomes crystallised. The goal of the movement is accepted in that society.
• Fifth stage is the dissolution of the movement. Sometimes, after the attainment of objectives, movement itself comes to an end or sometimes the movement itself fades away.

Question 5.
Satya Shodhak Movement.
Answer:
Satya Shodhak movement was a non-Brahmin movement. It was represented by Satya Shodhak Samaj which was started by Jyoti Rao Phule in 1873 A.D. Jyoti Rao phule belonged to Phul Mali caste. Most of the members of this caste were gardners who cultivated flowers, fruits and vegetables. Phule and his associates were of the view that the people of Maharashtra are divided in two ways. On one side there are Brahmins and people of lower castes are on the other side. Brahmins deployed their traditional religions authority and newly acquired powers as officials under the British rule enforce this divide. The ideology of this movement was based on the idea that every type of Brahmin’s authority should be removed. This is the most important condition for the upliftment of lower castes.

Question 6.
Sree Narayan Dharam Paripalan Movement.
Answer:
Sree Narayan Dharam Paripalan movement was started in 1895. by Sree Narayan Guru in Kerala. He himself belonged to Izava community which was considered impure caste. Izava people were not allowed to do idol worship and animal sacrifice. Two main points were centered in this movement. First one was the end of untouchability and the second was the establishment of such temples which could be open for all. He also tried to change and simplify the rules related to marriage, religious customs and last rites. He even gave a new slogan, “One God and one religion for all mankind.”

Question 7.
Self Respect Movement.
Answer:
In 1925, Periyar E.V. Ramaswami started Self Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu. The objective of this movement was to establish such society in which lower castes should have equal rights. Another objective of this movement was to establish self respect for lower castes in caste based society. This movement proved quite effective in Tamilnadu. Major issue of this movement was to establish socio-economic equality. This movement concentrated on removing social evils on the name of dharam—karam. Periyar also said that this movement must be institutionalised to achieve its objective.

Question 8.
Appiko movement.
Answer:
Chipko movement was started in Garhwal region of Uttrakhand. After getting impressed from this, farmers of a district in Karnataka started the same type of movement. In south India, it was known as Appiko movement. In the local language of Karnataka, hugging is known as Appiko. In September 1983, people of Salkani region under the leadership of Pandurang Hegde hugged the. trees of Kalsa forest. It spread everywhere in south India. To make aware to the people, many methods were adopted such as folk dances, street plays etc. This movement got success when state government restricted cutting green trees. Only dry trees were allowed to cut to fulfil local needs.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1. Explain the women’s movements in India.
Or
What do you understand by Women’s movement? Discuss any two movements.
Answer:
Women’s Movement. There exist many women oriented social evils in Indian society right from the ages. That’s why many women’s organisation came into being at national and local level in early 20th century. The Women’s India Association (WIA) (1917), All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) (1926), National Council for Women in India (NCWI) (1925) are worth mentioning. Some of them started with a limited scope but their scope widened over the time. For example, the AIWC started with an idea of ‘Women Welfare’ and ‘Politics’ but few years later its President stated that,“Can the Indian man or woman be free if India be a slave? How can we remain dumb about national freedom, the very basis of all great reforms?” It can be argued that this period of activity did not constitute a social movement. It can be argued otherwise too.

It is generally throught that only middle class educated woman are involved in social movements. But we should keep in mind the women’s participation in freedom struggle. They participated along with men in tribal revolts and struggles in rural areas during colonial times. We can take examples of the Tebhaga movement in Bengal, the Teleangana arms struggle from the erstwhile Nizam’s rule and the Warli tribals revolt against bondage in Maharashtra.

One issue which is generally raised is that if there was an active women’s movement before 1947, what happened after 1947. One explanation can be given that many women who were involved in national movement got involved in the national building task. Some give the reason that trauma of Partition is responsible for it. In the mid 1970’s women’s movement again started in India. Some call it the second phase of women’s movement in India. But some are of the view that nature of both the movements is different. After independence there was a growth of autonomous women’s movements. It means they were independent from political parties. It was felt that political parties always try to marginalise issues of women.

Except the organisational changes and change in nature, new issues were focussed in new movement like violence against women. Many campaigns were initiated, over the years, against this evil. That’s why these days forms of children – having columns of both names of father and mother. Other important legal changes have also taken place because of campaign by women’s movement. Issues of employment, land rights have been fought alongside rights against dowry and sexual harassment.

Question 2.
Environmental movements often also contain economic and identity issues. Discuss.
Answer:
The Modern period has greatly emphasised the issue of development. From many decades people are concerned about uncontrolled use of natural resources and a model of development which creates new needs. It further demands more exploitations of already depleted natural resources. This model of development has also been criticised because it has been assumed that all the sections of society are benefited from this development. So big dams displaced the people from their livelihood and homes. The impact of industrial pollution is another story. Here we can take example of an ecological movement in which many issues are interlinked.

The Chipko movement, in the foothills of Himalayas, is an example of interlinked issues. Ramachandra Guha wrote in his book, ‘Unquiet Woods’, that villagers rallied together to save the Rhododendron and Oak forests near their villages. When government contractors came to cut down the trees, all the villagers stepped forward and hugged the trees to prevent them for being axed. Villagers’ subsistence was also at stake. All of them were dependent on forests to get firewood, fodder and things of daily needs. That’s why villagers stood against government’s desire to generate revenues by selling timber.

The economy of subsistence stood against the economy of profit. Along side the issue of social inequality, the Chipko movement also raised the issue of ecological problem. Cutting down of forests could have led to ecological destruction which could have resulted in devastating floods and landslides in the region. These red and green issues were interlinked for the villagers. As their survival was dependent upon forests, they also valued the forests for their own sake because ecological wealth benefits everyone. Moreover this movement also showed people’s anger, living in hill villages, against a distant government, in plains, which seemed indifferent and hostile to their concerns. So concerns of economy, ecology and political representation were important in Chipko movement.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 9 Social Movements Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 9 Social Movements

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Social Movements Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of the following is not the feature of a social movement?
(a) Group consciousness
(b) Set ideology
(c) Collective rfiobilisation
(d) only violent in nature
Answer:
(d) Only violent in nature

2. Who represented Satyashodhak Movement?
(a) Jotirao Phule
(b) Dj. Ambedkar
(c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
(d) Sri Narayan Guru
Answer:
(a) Jotirao Phule

3. Which of the following is not a caste movement?
(a) Mahar movement
(b) SNDP movement
(c) Satyashodhak movement
d) Indigo movement
Answer:
(d) Indigo movement

4. Who founded Self Respect Movement?
(a) Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy
(b) Dr. Ambedkar
(c) Sri Narayana Guru
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy

5. When people are not satisfied with the existing social order and advocate reconstructing of the entire social order, this type of movement is called :
(a) Revivalist Movement
(b) Reform Movement
(c) Revolutionary Movement
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Revolutionary Movement

Fill In The Blanks:

1. SEWA stands for ……………
Answer:
Self Employed Women’s Association

2. Class movement includes …………… and …………… movements.
Answer:
Workers, Women

3. ……………. gave the slogan “One religion and one god for mankind.
Answer:
Sri Narayana Guru

4. ……………. made great efforts in order to abolish the practice of sati.
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy

5. The peasants were compelled to grow …………….. crop which led to the initiation of Indigo Movement.
Answer:
Indigo

True/False:

1. Social movements involve sustained collective mobilisation through organisation either informal or formal.
Answer:
True

2. Social movement is always peaceful in nature.
Answer:
False

3. Mahar movement is based on total rejection of the religion of the caste Hindu.
Answer:
True

4. SNDP movement was founded by Jotirao Phule.
Answer:
False

Match The Columns:

Column A	Column B
Self Respect Movement	Chandi Prasad Bhatt
Mahar Movement	Medha Patkar.
Chipko Movement	Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy
Brahmo Samaj	Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Narmade Bachao Andolan	Dr. Ambedkar

Answer:

Column A	Column B
Self Respect Movement	Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy
Mahar Movement	Dr. Ambedkar
Chipko Movement	Chandi Prasad Bhatt
Brahmo Samaj	Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Narmade Bachao Andolan	Medha Patkar

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Who founded Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana movement?
Answer:
Sri Narayana Guru.

Question 2.
Who founded the Majdoor Mahajan Sangh?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi.

Question 3.
Who founded Brahmo Samaj?
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

Question 4.
Who is the father of Chipko Movement?
Answer:
Chandi Prasad Bhatt.

Question 5.
Name the person who has been awarded Padam Vibhushan for his contribution in Chipko Movement.
Answer:
Sunder Lai Bahuguna.

Question 6.
Who was the leader of Chipko Movement?
Answer:
Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sunder Lai Bahuguna.

Question 7.
Name any two caste movement.
Answer:
Satya Shodhak movement and Sri Narayana Dharam Paripalana movement.

Question 8.
Who are called peasants?
Answer:
Those persons who do agriculture on their land to grow something are known as peasants.

Question 9.
What does SEWA stand for?
Answer:
Self Employed Women’s Association.

Question 10.
Sundar Lai Bahuguna was conferred which award for his contribution?
Answer:
He was awarded Padma Vibhushan for his contribution to Chipko Movement.

Question 11.
Who founded Brahmo Samaj?
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan roy founded Brahmo Samaj.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Why it is called Chipko Movement?
Answer:
The government at Garhwal region gave the contract of forests to private contractors to cut the trees down. Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Gaura Devi and Sunder Lai Bahuguna started this movement. Whenever cdhtractors come to cut trees, women hugged the trees. That’s why it is called Chipko Movement.

Question 2.
What do you understand by Caste Movement?
Answer:
Main objective of caste movement was to highlight the struggle of lower castes. These movements were started to get rid of economic exploitation and to remove evil custom like untouchability and related ideology from society.

Question 3.
Describe
(a) Peasant movement
(b) Women’s movement
Answer:
(a) Peasant movement. Peasant movements mainly started in Punjab. Their main aim was to reduce loan and land tax of peasants. These movements continued till related laws were passed.
(b) Women’s movement. Female were suppressed from the ages. To uplift their social status, many movements were organised in 19th and 20th century. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, D.K. Karve etc. were major leaders of such movements.

Question 4.
What do you understand by class movement? Name any one movement.
Answer:
In class movement, we can include workers movements and peasant movements. Major demand of workers and peasants was to get rid of their economic exploitation. Trade Union movement was one such class movement.

Question 5.
Discuss briefly the factors responsible for the emergence of class movement.
Answer:
Major aim of class based movements was to get rid of economic exploitation of workers. Less wages, more hours of work, unhygeinic conditions of work, exploitation at the hands of local and foreigner capitalist etc. were few of the reasons for organising such movement.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you understand by environmental movement? Specify reasons for the initiation of such movements.
Or
What do you understand by Environment movement? Name any such movements.
Answer:
Environment movement is one of the finest example of collective struggle of many groups. These movements aimed at saving environment. Major objectives of such movements were control over resources, right of locals to save their culture, environment protection and to maintain ecological balance. Actually, in modern times, stress is given on development which can only done by exploiting natural resources. But this development has some adverse effects on nature. To remove such adverse effects, many reform movements were initiated to protect environment and maintain its balance. Chipko Movement was one of the such movement.

Question 2.
Discuss briefly any two caste movements.
Answer:

• Satya Shodhak Movement. This movement was organised by Satya Shodhak Samaj which was started by Jyotirao Phule. He was of the view that major division of Maharashtra was Brahmins on one side and lower castes on the other. That’s why the main objective of this movements to stop all the priviledges given to Brahmins so that the lower castes could be uplifted.
• Sri Narayana Dharam Paripalana Movement. This movement was started in Kerala by Sree Narayan Guru in 1895 A.D. He himself belonged to Izava community which was considered untouchable. This caste was not allowed to sacrifice animals or to do idolworship. Major objective of this movement was to uplift Izava community and to remove the custom of untouchability. Along with this, they, wanted to establish such temples which could be open for all the castes.

Question 3.
Enumerate determinants of peasant movement held in Punjab.
Answer:
Peasant movement in Punjab was confined only to the districts of Jalandhar, Amritsar, Hoshiarpur, Lyalpur and Shekhupura. In these districts, only those Sikh peasants lived who themselves tilled the land. The Princely states in Punjab also faced the outbreak of peasant movements. One such movement was organised in Patiala whose main aim was the restoration of land which was captured by the combine of land lords and officers. Peasants working on the land of landlords refused to share their crop. Major leaders. of this movement were Bhagwan Singh Longowalia, Jagir Singh Jaggo and later on Teja Singh Swatantra. This movement continued till the passing of legislations and peasants, tilling the land, were made owners of that land.

Question 4. What do you understand by Women’s movement? Name any one such movement.
Or
What do you mean by Women’s movement? Discuss any two such movements.
Answer:
During Vedic age, the status of women was quite good and they enjoyed high status in society. Gradually their status declined and all the rights were taken away from them. Most of the social evils are related with them. That’s why to uplift their status, during 19th century, many movements were started which were known as women movement. First movement was started by Brahmo Samaj which was started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. This movement was against the prevailing custom of Sati. Due to their efforts, in 1829, Lord William Bentick passed a law, Sati Prohibition Act, 1829 and declared Sati system illegal. In the same way Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar started a movement in favour of Widow Remarriage. That’s why in 1856, the British passed the ‘Widow Remarriage Act’ and allowed widows to remarry.

Question 5.
In what way the position of women is different in pre and post independent India?
Answer:
In 1947, India got freedom from the British and if we compare the situation before and after 1947, it is quite different. Before 1947, females had no rights. They were not allowed to take education. Yet many schools were opened for them but of no avail. They had no property rights. But after 1947 the Indian Constitution was made and implemented on 26th January, 1950 and women were given equal rights as compared to men. To uplift their social status, many laws were made and were given right in her father’s and husband’s property. They started getting education and doing jobs. In 2011, around 65% women were literate. Now they are taking part in every sector and are uplifting their social status.

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Write a note on social movement and its features.
Answer:
When people of any society are dissatisfied with prevailing social circumstances of society and they want to bring change in it then social movement comes into being. Social movement always starts with an ideology. Sometimes social movement develops to oppose any change. Earlier sociologists used to think that social change is an effort to bring change but modern sociologists think that movement either brings social change or stops any change. Different thinkers have given their views about social movement and these are given below :

According to Merril and Eldridge, “Social movement is more or less conscious effort for change in mores of society.” According to Hurton and Hunt, “Social movement is the collective effort for bringing change or doing opposition in society or in its members.”
According to Herbert Blummer, “Social movement can be called as the collective effort to establish a new system of life.”

So on the basis of the views of these different scholars, we can say that social movement is the collective behaviour of members of society, whose aim is to either change prevailing culture and social structure or to oppose that change. So social movement can be understood in the form of effort of social action and collective effort.

Features. Following are the features of social movements :

1. Group Consciousness: The first and important feature of any movement is the existence of group consciousness in it. Consciousness brings unity and more people participate in movement.

2. Collective Action: Social movement cannot be started by one or two persons. For this, many people and their collective actions are required. In the absence of collective action, movement cannot be initiated.

3. Set Ideology: To start a social movement, it is must to have a set ideology and members should have faith in it. In the absence of set ideology, movement cannot start. Along with this, ideology must continue for a longer period so that the movement must not deviate from its path.

4. To Promote Change: Social movement is initiated because of two reasons. First of all it wants to bring change in the existing system and secondly it can oppose the change. Change is must in both the circumstances. In this way social movement brings change in one- way or the other.

5. Brings New social Order: Major objective of social movement is to bring change in the existing system. This change replaces the old system with the new system which in itself is a symbol of change.

6. Violent or Non-violent: It is not necessary that social movement will only non-violent in nature. Sometimes, it can be violent. Sometimes, people are so much fed up with the existing system that they even take the violent path to change it.

7. Unlimited Period: Every social movement starts with an objective in mind. But no one knows that for how much time will it continue and when will the objectives be achieved. In this way movement is for unlimited time period.

Question 2.
What do you understand by social movement? Discuss its various types.
Answer:
Meaning of Social Movement. See previous question no. 1.
Types of Social Movements. Following are the types of social movements :

1. Reform Movement. Reform movements are those which are actually satisfied with the existing social system but they don’t want to change whole of society but only few parts of society. The institutions such as Press and Church are used to start social movement. For example socio reform movement started in India out of which Brahmo Samaj movement was quite important. It tried to eliminate many social evils such as Sati Pratha, Child marriage, no intercaste marriage, restrictions on marriage etc.

2. Revolutionary Movements. Revotionary movements are not satisfied with the existing social system. Such movements aimed at bringing quick and sudden change in society. As they are not satisfied with the system, that’s why they want to change whole social system. For example, the French Revolution of 1789 and the Russian Revolution of 1917 with which the existing social system was thrown away and the new social system was established.

3. Revivalist Movement. Revivalist movement is also known as Reactionary movement. Secret of such movement lies in the dissatisfaction of society. Some of the members of society do not like few changes and they try to reestablish old values. For example, the movement of Khadi Gramodyog started by Mahatma Gandhi.

Question 3.
Differentiate between caste and class movements. Substantiate by giving examples.
Answer:
Caste based Movement. Caste based movements were started to highlight the struggle of lower castes and backward classes. These movements were not only aimed at removing economic exploitation but also wanted to get rid of social evils such as untouchability and its related ideology. Lower castes were suppressed from the ages, they had no rights, they were given only cleaning work which fetch them very less income. So, they were quite poor. They were exploited in everyway. That’s why, from time to time, many movements were started to uplift their social status.

First of all Joti Rao Phule started Satya Shodhak movement in Maharashtra to remove authority of Brahmins and to give higher status to lower castes. After this, in 1895, Sri NarayanA Guru started Sree Narayana Paripalana movement in Kerala to give certain rights to Izava Community. He wanted to remove untouchability and to establish such temples which could be open for all. He, even gave the slogan of ‘One religion and one god for mankind.’ After this, in 1925, Periyar Ramaswami started self Respect movement in Tamilnadu whose main aim was to establish such a society in which backward castes could have equal rights. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar also started many movements to uplift the social status of Mahar Castes. Class based Movement.

In class based movement, we can include workers movements and peasants movements. Workers and peasants demanded to remove their economic exploitation. Many trade unions were formed in the country from which we come to know about workers’ demands. During the British times, Jute industry, Cotton industry and tea industry started in India. Poor people started getting work in these industries. They had to work for more hours, were given less wages and worked under unhygienic conditions. Capitalists always exploited them. During different times, many laws were made for them but of no avail. That’s why trade unions were formed to improve their condition. In the same way peasants were also exploited. Zamindars gave their land on rent to peasants and without doing anything took away large portion of their production. Peasants remained poor and zamindars continued to prosper. That’s why in Punjab and many other areas, few movements were organised. After the Indian freedom, government-made many laws and removed zamindari system. One who actually tilled the land was made owner of the land.

Question 4.
What do you understand by peasant movement? Discuss its determinants by citing any one peasant movement.
Answer:
Peasant movements are associated with the relations between farmers and land owners. When there is lack of co-ordination between agricultural workers and land owners then workers take the path of movement and peasant movement starts from here. Actually these movements start because of exploitation of farmers. Its main base is class struggle and it is different from workers movement. Important base of these movements is agricultural system. A different type of structure has been developed among agricultural classes due to agriculture relations and diversity of land systems. This structure is different in different areas. Agricultural classes of India can be divided into three parts:

• Owner,
• Farmer,
• Labourer.

The owner is also known as land owner. This class is the owner of whole of that land on which agricultural work takes place. Farmers come after land owners. Small marginal farmers are the owners of small pieces of land. They used to till their land themselves. Third class is of labourers who used to earn money by working in agricultural field. They are generally landless and very poor.

Peasant movements started because of different reasons. As the earning of agricultural labourers is affected by industrialisation, they used to oppose it with a movement, Except this there are certain other reasons of initiating peasant movements like demand of more value of their produce, their exploitation by the officials, bonded labourers, opposition of reducing farming subsidies etc.

Peasant Movement in Punjab. Punjab was the major centre of peasant activities. Around 1930, Kisan Sabha originated. Its major demand was reduction in loan and taxes. Except this, another issue which raised concern was the resettlement of land revenue in Amritsar and Lahore districts. Groups were send to district headquarters and strikes were organised. The culmination of the movement occured with the advent of Lahore Kisan Morcha in 1939. Hundreds of peasants were arrested in the state.

Peasant movement in Punjab was confined only to the districts of Jalandhar, Amritsar, Hoshiarpur, layalpur and Shekhupura. In these districts, only those Sikh peasants, lived who themselves field the land. The Princely states in Punjab also faced the outbreak of peasant movements. One such movement was organised in Patiala whose main aim was the restoration of land which was captured by the combine of landlords and officers. Peasants working on the land of landlords refused to share their crop. Major leaders of this movement were Bhagwan Singh Longowalia, Jagir Singh Jaggo and later on Teja Singh Swantartra. This movement continued till the passing of legislations and peasants tilling the land were made owners of that land.

Question 5.
Elucidate the position of women in India. How do the women’s movement lead to the upliftment of their position.
Answer:
Around half of population in world and in India is of women. But the status of women is not the same in different countries. Hindu shastras consider woman as ‘ARDHANGINP and she is considered as the LUXMI, DURGA, KALI, SARASWATI goddesses in Hindu society. Woman is also known as ‘BHARAT MATA’ in India and people pay homage to her. Even many religious yagyas and rituals are considered incomplete without female. Status of women was very good in Vedic Age but their conditions became pitiable after that and during Medieval Age. Many social reformers tried to improve the status of women in 19th century. Women started to become conscious about their rights in 20th century and they took part in the freedom struggle with great zeal. With this their point of view started to change and their participation in political and economic sectors was increased to a great extent.

1. Vedic Age. The vedic age is also known as the golden age of Indian society. Status of women in this age was very good. Whatever literature is available to us, if we read that then we come to know that women had rights to get education, marriage and to keep property and they were equal with males. Status of female wa£ very good in family and she was considered as necessary to complete religious and social functions.

Enough importance was given to the education of girls. No evils of purdah, system and child marriage prevailed in that society, yet polygamy was there but woman was kept with great respect in the family. Widow remarriage was not restricted. There was no place of Sati Pratha and that’s why widow female can opt for Sati or not. Status of women in early Vedic Age was equal to males. Disrespect of women was considered as sin and the security of woman was considered as the work of courage. Status of women was very high in India but she was just like a servant in western countries.

2. Post Vedic Age. This age was started from 1000 B.C. and went up to 300 A.D. Woman was unable to get that respect which she was getting in Vedic Age. Custom of child marriage was started during this age because of which it became diffcult for women to get education. Due to nonavailability of education, her knowledge of Vedas came to an end and she was restricted to “take part in religious activities. It became necessary for female, in this age, to obey her husband and marriage also became necessary for her.

Polygamy became very famous in this age because of which her position became lower. In this age people started to. restrict widow remarriage and her function remained confined only to fulfil the responsibilities of the family. Till the later part of this age, independence and rights of female were reduced to a great extent and her independence was very much under the control of males.

3. Smriti Age. This age started to give emphasis on the rules given in Manu Smriti. Many books like Manu Smriti, Prashar Samhita etc. were written’in this age. That’s why this age is also known as the age of Dharm Shastras. Position of female became lower in this age as compared to post Vedic Age. She was respected only in the form of mother. Age of marriage was further reduced and her position was not good in this age. Even in Manu Smriti it is written that woman should be kept under observation all the times. In childhood age she should remain in the observation of father, at young age in the observation of husband and in the old age she should be under the observation of her sons.

Widow remarriages completely came into end in this age and Sati Pratha started to get great importance. The main aim of female was considered as to serve the husband. Age of marriage was around 10-12 years. There was no independent existense of female. All the rights of females were given to either husband or son. Husband was considered as god for her and his service became the main aim of her life.

4. Medieval Period. In Medieval Period and after the advent of Mughal Empire, status of women further deteriorated. Brahmins made many strict rules for females for the security of Hindu religion, to secure respect and to maintain purity of blood. There was no scope of education of women. Purdah Pratha was increased. Age of marriage of girl was further reduced to 8-9 years. That’s why she faced many problems even during earlier part of her life. Sati pratha was very famous and there was no place of widow remarriage. She was confined under the hold of males. Medieval age was considered as the black age for woman. Her position in the family was just like a maid. She had no rights over the property of the family.

5. Modern Age. The Modern age started after the advent of the British. First time in the history, voice was raised to uplift the position of women and the first man to raise his voice for women was Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Sati Pratha also come to end due to his efforts and widow remarriage was also given legal sanction. Later on other social reformers like Dayanand Sarswati, Govind Ranade, Ramabai Ranade, Vivekananda also raised their voice for the education and rights of women. Due to their efforts, the status of women started to improve.

Women started to get education and she came out of four walls of house to take part in freedom struggle. She started to go out for job after getting education and became independent and economically self-dependent. Presently the position of women is very good because she came to know about her rights due to education and self dependence. Now she has every right equal to males like to keep property, to take share in father’s property etc.

Role of movements in uplifting their social status :
Half of the population of the country is of women. So it is necessary, for the development of the country, that their condition should also be improved and the evils related to them should also be removed. After independence many provisions were kept in the Constitution with which efforts were done to improve the status of women. Many laws were made to uplift her social status. The following efforts were done to improve the status and the welfare of the women.

1. Constitutional Provisions. Many provisions were kept in constitution to improve the status of women :

• Article 14 of the Constitution says that everyone is equal in front of law.
• According to Article 15 (1) of the Constitution, there shall be no discrimination with Indian citizen on the bases of religion, caste, sex or living place.
• Article 15 (3) says that the state shall do special efforts for women and children.
• Article 16 says that state shall give equal opportunities to all Indian citizens in the matters of employment and appointments.
• Article 39 (D) of the Constitution says that males and females will get same pay for same work.
• Article 42 of the Constitution says that state shall produce judicial condition of functions and shall provide more and more maternity help.
• Article 51 (A) (E) says that the customs disgracing women’s respect shall be sacrificed.
• Article 243 of the Constitution says that one third seats in local governments- panchayats and municipalities shall be kept reserved.

2. Legislations. Many laws have been made for the security of interests of women and to improve their social status which are given below :

• The Sati Prohibition Act 1829, 1987.
• The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
• The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929.
• The Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act, 1937.
• The Special Marriage Act, 1954.
• The Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act 1955 and 1967.
• The Hindu Succession Act, 1956.
• The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, 1986.
• The Maternity Relief Act, 1961, 1976.
• The Muslim Women Protection of Right of Divorce, 1986.

Yet many of these laws were made even before independence but they were also amended after independence. Many problems of women came to an end due to these laws like Dowry system, Sati pratha, Child marriage, No Right to keep property etc. These laws have greatly helped in the improvement of status of women.

3. Women Welfare Programmes. Many programmes were started after independence to uplift the status of women whose description is given below :

• International Women Day was celebrated in 1975 and many programmes were started for their welfare.
• DWAKRA programme was started in 1982-83 to strengthen the rural women from economic point of view.
• Women Development Corporation was established in 1986-87, so that the women could get opportunities of employment.
• National Women Commission was reorganized in 1922 so that the attrocities committed on women could be stopped.

4. Women cells were established in the country. These are those organization of women which arranges for the welfare programmes for women in rural areas. 75% of total money spending on these programmes is given by central social welfare board.

5. Many houses have been established for the working women in cities. Central Social Welfare Board has established hostels in many cities so that the working women could be able to live in cities.

6. Central Social Welfare Board has started many socio-economic programmes after 1958 in country so that the needy women could be provided the employment. Dairy programmes are also included in this. In this way, many programmes were started after independence so that the social status of women could be uplifted. In this way, we can see a very good future of women in coming days.

Question 6.
What do you understand by environmental movement? Discuss two such movements in detail.
Or
Explain Chipko Andolan and Narmada Bachao Andolan as Environmental Movement.
Answer:
In modern times, more stress is given on development. That’s why more natural resources are used and concerns are raised on their uncontrolled usage. Presently, it has been said that development will give benefits to all. The classes. But actually large industries are made and peasants are displaced from their lands. With industrial development a major problem of industrial pollution is coming farmers. To reduce industrial pollution, many movements were started which were known as environment movements. We can look at environment movement as a collective step taken by many social groups. Major objective of this movement was control on resources, environment protection and to maintain ecological balance. During the decades of 1970’s and 1980’s, many struggles were started to save country from environment pollution, to stop large protects and to stop displacement of the people.

1. Chipko Movement. Chipko movement started during the decade of 1970 in the mountaneous regipn of Gharwal, Uttrakhand. Forests were the means of livelihood for the people living over here. They fulfilled their needs by collecting things from the forests. Government wanted to earn money, so ’it gave forests to contractors. Whenever people visited forests to collect things, contractors stopped them. People of many villages collectively started struggle against this. Whenever contractor come to forest to cut trees, people hugged trees to save them: Women and children greatly participated in it. Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sunder Lai Bahuguna were the major leaders of this movement. As people hugged the trees, that’s why it is known as Chipko movement. Finally, movement got success and government stopped cutting trees for 15 years.

2. Narmada Bachao Andolan. Narmada Bachao Andolan was started by Medha Patkar and Baba Amte along with few others. It was quite a powerful movement which was started in 1985. This movement was started against the Sardar Sarovar Dam to be constructed on Narmada river of Gujarat. In 1978, Narmada water Dispute Tribunal gave its approval to the Narmada Valley Development Project. Most controversial dam was Sardar Sarovar Project. With the making of this project, 40 lakh people were to be displaced from their homes, lands.

Medha Patkar was the major leader of this movement and she filed a petition in the Supreme Court to stop the construction of this dam. Initially, the supreme court ruled in favour of movement and the work of constructing dam was stopped. Then, the Supreme Court ordered the related states to first place the displaced people. Later on, under certain conditions, it gave its permission to start the work of dam. The Supreme Court further arranged to care about the displaced people. Yet, this movement was not been able to get success for which it aimed, but it made people conscious about their environment.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 8 Modernisation and Globalisation Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 8 Modernisation and Globalisation

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What do we call the process which is based on change which tells us about good or had of anything?
(a) Sanskritisation
(b) Industrialisation
(c) Urbanisation
(d) Modernisation
Answer:
(d) Modernisation

2. What is necessary for modernisation?
(a) Higher level of education
(b) Development of means of transport and communication
(c) Giving preference to industries
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

3. Who was responsible for bringing modernisation in India?
(a) Mughal Emperor
(b) Indian Government
(c) The British Government
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) The British Government

4. What do we call the process in which there is a free flow of trade, services, capital investment and people between countries?
(a) Privatisation
(b) Globalisation
(c) Modernisation
(d) Liberalisation
Answer:
(b) Globalisation

5. The process of selling public sector companies to private hands is known as …………….
(a) Privatisation
(b) Globalisation
(c) Modernisation
(d) Liberlisation
Answer:
(a) Privatisation

6. Removing unnecessary restrictions from controlled economy is known as ………………
(a) Privatisation
(b) Globalisation
(c) Liberalisation
(d) Modernisation
Answer:
(c) Liberalisation

Fill in the Blanks:

1. The concept of cultural lag was given by …………….
Answer:
William Ogburn

2. In Japan, globalisation is known as ………………
Answer:
gurobaruka

3. ………………. gave four bases of globalisation.
Answer:
Giddens

4. The process of removing unnecessary restrictions in controlled economy is known as ……………
Answer:
liberalisation

5. The process of selling public sector companies to private sector is known as ……………
Answer:
Privatisation

True/False:

1. In globalisation, there is no exchange of capital and services.
Answer:
True

2. Globalisation has made world a ‘global village’.
Answer:
True

3. According to Weber, modernisation changes personal relations into impersonal relations.
Answer:
True

4. In modernisation, less capital investment brings modernity in the country.
Answer:
False

5. With modernisation, technology changes from simple to complex. :
Answer:
True

One Word/One Line Questions Answers:

Question 1.
What is meant by modernisation?
Answer:
The process of adopting modern values and ways of living is known as modernisation.

Question 2.
Which areas were developed under modernisation?
Answer:
Industries, means of transport and communication, health and educational facilities etc.

Question 3.
What is the major feature of modernisation?
Answer:
Modern societies depend upon each other to fulfill their needs.

Question 4.
Who used the word modernisation first time?
Answer:
First of all, this word was used by Daniel Lerner.

Question 5.
Why is the process of modernisation lengthy?
Answer:
Because it takes generations to make a society modern.

Question 6.
Who gave the concept of culutral lag?
Answer:
The concept of cultural lag was given by William F. Ogburn.

Question 7.
Give views of Durkheim about the process of modernisation.
Answer:
According to Durkheim, in modernisation, mechanical solidarity gets changed into organic solidarity.

Question 8.
Give one obstacle in the way of modernisation,
Answer:
Colonial rule in the less developed countries.

Question 9.
Give one reason of modernisation.
Answer:
Increase in urbanisation, development of industries, spread of education.

Question 10.
Who gave the concept of ‘Global Village’?
Answer:
The concept of Global Village was given by Marshall Mclluhum.

Question 11.
What do we call globalisation in Indonesia?
Answer:
In Indonesia, globalisation is known as ‘globalisasi’.

Question 12.
Give one feature of globalisation.
Answer:
In globalisation, local functions spread everywhere in the world.

Question 13.
What is meant by LPG?
Answer:
L means liberalisation, P means privatisation and G means globalisation.

Question 14.
Give one reason of globalisation.
Answer:
Globalisation has been made possible because of developed means of transport and communication.

Question 15.
Give one result of globalisation.
Answer:
It increase foreign direct investment in the country.

Question 16.
What is meant by FDI?
Answer:
The meaning of FDI is Foreign Direct Investment.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is meant by modernisation?
Answer:
The meaning of modernisation is adopting modern values and ways of living life. It takes generations for society and individuals to become modern because they easily adopt modern things but they do not change their views.

Question 2.
Give three negative consequences of modernisation.
Answer:

• Joint families are disintegrating and nuclear families are coming forward.
• Leisure goods are increasing in the market which exerts the wrong impact on kids.
• Immorality has increased in society.

Question 3.
What is necessary for modernisation?
Answer:

• There should be a better level of education.
• Means of transport and communication should be developed.
• In place of agriculture, industries should develop.

Question 4.
What is meant by globalisation?
Answer:
Globalisation is a process in which the economy of a country is attached to the economies of other countries. It means that the unrestricted flow of goods, services, capital and labour between different countries is globalisation. There is the free flow of trade among them.

Question 5.
What is Liberalisation?
Answer:
Removing unnecessary restrictions in a controlled economy is liberalisation. Removing unnecessary restrictions from industries and trade to make the economy more competitive and progressive is liberalisation. It is an economic process and a process of economic changes in society.

Question 6.
What is Privatisation?
Answer:
In democratic countries, there is mixed economy. In such economy, there are public sector companies which are under the control of government. Selling of such public sector companies to private hands is called privatisation.

Question 7.
What are three major aspects of globalisation?
Answer:

• Positive aspect in which there are many advantages of globalisation.
• Neutral aspect according to which globalisation is a necessary process of development.
• Negative aspect which brings economic problems and inequality in income.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Modernization.
Or
Define Modernization.
Answer:
The meaning of the process of Modernization is that change which comes under the influence of westernization but it exists only in a basic direction. With this process, a new form was taken by many Indian institutions and change in modern times is because of the result of the modernization. Results of this process are always positive and developing.

Question 2.
Two characteristics of Modernization.
Answer:

• Social Differentiation: Many sectors of society became complex due to the process of modernization. Because of this, the process of differentiation has been fastened.
• Social Mobility: Ancient social, economic elements are changed because of modernization and new values of human ideals are established.

Question 3.
Two changes due to Modernization.
Answer:

• Secularization. The idea of secularization has been established in Indian society. Member of any religious group can achieve highest or higher post of the country. Qualities of cooperation, love, patience create equality in society. It is because of Modernization.
• Industrialization. With the advent of industrialization, the growing demands of increasing population of India were fulfilled. On one side, large scale industries came into being and on the other side domestic industries and joint families came to an end.

Question 4.
Modernization increases Social Mobility.
Answer:
Social mobility is the main characteristic of modern societies. Division of labour, specialization, different occupations, industries, business, means of communication and transportation in urban society have increased the social mobility. Every person can become rich from poor with his intelligence and capabilities. He adopts that occupation which gives more profits to him. Even he changes his place of residence with occupation. In this way, with social mobility, new values are developed in place of old traditional values. So from this, we can say that the modernization increases social mobility.

Question 5.
Establishment of new classes with Modernization.
Answer:
Process of modernization gives enough opportunities to person. That is why new classes are established in society. If there will be only one class in society, then that society will be known as classless society. That is why new classes came into being in modern society. Another reason for new classes came into being because different persons have different abilities because of which they are different from each other from the point of view of money, occupation, education. That is why new classes are coming in front of us. Money is of great importance in modern society. That is why people are divided in different classes on political and religious basis. Labour unions are using war path to achieve their goals. Even people of different occupations have made their own unions.

Question 6.
Modernization or Mechanization.
Answer:
Lot of changes have come in the occupations related to agriculture through mechanization. In earlier times, India was dependent upon other countries for food grains. But after modernization and with the use of mechanization, our country became self-dependent in this sector and other parts also have been changed.

Question 7.
Modernization and Social Change.
Answer:
The process of modernization has brought very quick revolutionary changes in our society. Female education has been increased. Except this lot of change have come in widow marriage, dowry system and position of women. Many laws were also passed in this regard. In this way, this process became very effective in eradicating social evils.

Question 8.
Industrialisation.
Answer:
Every society has to make itself industrialised to fulfil all of its needs. Development of industries in every sector of the society is known as Industrialisation. Its main aim is to produce at a large scale so that the society could be able to meet its demands. Industrialisation also comes due to fhe increasing population of the society. Capitalism also came after the advent of this Industrialisation.

Question 9.
Urbanisation.
Answer:
Migration of people towards cities and increasing numbers of cities is known as urbanisation. Many changes came in society due to urbanisation. Increase in population, social mobility, change in the forms of social institutions, increase in the means of enjoyment etc. also came due to urbanisation. Villages were also affected by urbanization because people of villages started to move towards cities. Change in every sector of society came due to urbanisation.

Question 10.
Globalisation.
Answer:
Globalisation is a very wide economic process which is spread over all countries and societies. In this, different countries have free trade and economic relations. Different countries depend upon each other for their needs because of which the concept of free trade and economic relation in different countries came in front of us. This concept is known as Globalisation.

Question 11.
Characteristics of Globalisation.
Answer:

• Business in the whole world goes on in this.
• New economy has been established with this in the world.
• Market has been expanded to the whole world.
• Division of labour has been increased with this.
• Specialized persons are moving from one country to another country with this.

Question 12.
Effects of Globalisation on India.
Answer:

• Export from India has been increased.
• Foreign investment in India has been increased.
• The foreign exchange of India has been increased.
• India’s Gross Domestic Production (G.D.P.) has been increased.
• Technical and educational improvements are there.
• Industries have been developed.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Explain the impact of modernisation on Indian society.
Answer:
1. Secularization: The process of secularization has reached the people by the processs of modernization. After Independence of India, every person of India is treated as equal in front of law. Now person of every religion can achieve any status in society. People were made conscious to make friendly relations with members of other religions. Different activites of different relations were given respect. In this way the sense of unity started to develop among people. The concept of secularization was applied in every sector after independence.

2. Westernizatipn: Process of modernization is related with the process of westernization. Westernization started to affect the Indian society after the advent of Britishers and slowly and slowly the process of Westernization was transformed into Modernization. All those elements of western culture, which were adopted by Indian people, also transformed into Indian way. On one side some elements and life styles of British culture attracted many Indians and on another side many parts of Indian population were specifically attracted by the different aspect of British culture. In this way the transformation of Indian people towards the process of modernization is also related with the mobility of westernization.

3. Industrialization: Industrialization is an important feature of modern society. Existence of industrialization in India is also by the effect of western culture. Many big industries were established in India with the help of foreign countries. Industrialization is related with the production on large scale. Capitalism is developed in society due to development of industrialization. Now person is doing that work which gives him more profit. Industrial revolution has produced many new technical occupations. Person in Industrial society gets occupation on the bases of his ability not according to his caste.

That’s why the traditional custom of adopting ancestral occupation came to an end. Life style of the people living in industrial cities was completely changed. Domestic production of villages was destroyed due to development of industrialization. That’s why the joint family system of ancient times also came end. Economic system of India was also changed. Every sector of industries started to develop. Many countries like U.K., U.S.A., Japan etc. have established their industries in India. In this way, from this description, it is clear that the industrialization of our society was progressed through the process of Modernization.

4. Urbanization: The process of urbanization came into being with the development of industrialization. With the industrial development, cities were also developed near to these industries. People came to cities from villages in search of employment. Process of modernization was started with the development of cities. More density of population and social mobility is there in cities. Contact between villages and cities was established with the development of means of transport and communication. In this way different social institutions were completely changed through urbanization. Position of female was changed very quickly.

They started to demand, status equal to males. Nuclear families got more sanctions in cities than joint familis. Male and female got equal status in nuclear families. If we look at the educational sector in modern times then we can see that females are more as compared to males. Females are doing more progress in every sector i.e. governmental jobs, business, industries etc. Now she is not dependent upon the males. She is now earning herself and is self-dependent.

In this way the importance of wealth, status and education was increased. Effect of religions, in cities is very less due to dominance of religions. In cities dominance of secondary groups, more density of population, modernization, scientific outlook are there and people are, trying to obtain more and more facilities. That’s why relations among humans in cities are formal and temporary in nature. Gist and Helbert are of the view that “The city encourages impersonal rather than personal contacts.”
Urban people are more literate because of which they adopt new circumstances by understanding them very quickly. Some problems also came into being due to urbanization like unemployment, slums, more divorce rate, suicide etc. But many problems are also eliminated like caste system, child marriage, sati pratha etc.

5. Development of New Classes: The process of modernization has given many opportunities to person to do progress. That’s why many new classes are established. If there will be one class in society then that society will be known as classless society. That’s why new classes came into being in modern societies. One reason of new classes came into being is that different people don’t have same ability and that’s why they are different from the aspect of wealth, occupation, education etc. That’s why new classes came into being.

Maclver and Page are of the view that, “Wherever social inter-course is limited by consideration of status by distinction between higher and lower there social class exists. A social class, then is a portion of a community marked off from the rest by social status. A system or structure of social classes involves, first, a hierarchy of status groups, second, the recongnition of the superior, inferior stratification and finally some degree of performance of the structure.”

Money and wealth has more importance in modern society. That’s why people are not divided in different classes on the basis of caste but are divided in different classes on political and economic basis. In industrial sector labourers have established their labohr unions to fight with the capitalists. Even different people have made their different occupational unions.

6. Development in Agricultural Area: Most of the population of Indian villages does the work of agriculture. People were using physical power in ancient societies to do agricultural works but new machines are invented in modern times. Agriculture is being done with the help of tractors. New chemical manures are used with which production has been increased. Produce is being cut down by combines. That’s why more production is there with less physical work. Now less number of persons are used in agricultural work. That’s why people become unemployed and started to work in industries.

Mechanization in the sector of agriculture is being done with modernization. Earlier India was dependent upon other countries for its foodgrains. But with green revolution it became self-dependent. In this way economic condition of people of villages started to improve and their standard of living became higher.

7. Establishment of Welfare State: After Independence, the word ‘welfare state’ was used by the Indian Constitution for our country because of which burden of the country was increased. That’s why the process of social change is gaining speed day by day. Central and state governments are working for the protection of the rights of businessmen, consumers, collectively. Especially they are working for the welfare of lower caste. The government is trying for the equal distribution of wealth and the process of modernization is responsible for this.

8. Democratization: Democratization of the political sector is being done because of the process of modernization: India is known as the largest democracy in the world because all the adults of the country have the right to vote. All are equal in front of the law. Everyone has got some fundamental rights, the Government is working to remove economic inequalities. Some directive principles of state policy are given in Constitution so that the state should make its policies according to these principles. People have the right to change the government. In this way, democracy in India is very strong and all this is the result of modernization.

Question 2.
Explain the results of globalisation.
Or
Discuss the consequences of globalisation on society.
Or
Write down the impact of globalisation on Indian society.
Answer:
Economic reforms in India were started in 1991 and the process of globalisation and Indian economy was encouraged. Effects of globalisation on different sectors of the Indian economy are given below:

1. Increase of Indian Share in World Export. With the process of globalisation, the Indian share in world expect has been increased. Indian goods and services in India in the decade of 1990-2000 has been increased by 125%. In 1990 Indian sharing world’s export of goods and services was 0.55% which was increased up to 0.75% in 1999.

2. Foreign Investment in India. Foreign direct investment is an important feature of globalisation because foreign investment increases the capacity of production of any economy. Foreign investment in India is continuously increasing. From 1995¬96 up to 2000-01 it has been increased by 53% and during this time 500 corers annually has been invested in India.

3. Foreign Exchange Reserves. Foreign exchange is necessary for import. In June 1991 foreign exchange reserves in India was One Billion Dollars which was enough only to fulfil the needs of only two weeks of the country. After this India has adopted new economic policies. Globalisation and liberalisation were encouraged because of which foreign exchange reserve was increased very quickly. Now the foreign exchange reserve is near to 395 Billion Dollars.

4. Growth of Gross Domestic Product. Because of globalisation, the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country has been increased. In 1980 it was 5.63% which was increased to 5.80% in 1990. Now it is around 7%.

5. Increase in Unemployment. Because of globalisation unemployment in India has been increased. During the decade of 1990-2000, the economic problems came in Mexico, South Korea, Thailand, Singapur, Indonesia, Malaysia and it came because of globalization. That’s why millions of people lost their jobs and they had to live below poverty line. At the start of 1990’s decade, the rate of unemployment was 6% which was increased up to 7% in 2000.

6. Impact on Agriculture. The share of agriculture and its related activities in the Gross Domestic Product of country is 29%. But it is 2% in U.S.A., 55% in Japan and France. If we look at the labour force then India’s 69% labour force is related with agricultural functions but labour force in the agriculture sector in U.S.A and U.K. is only 2.6%. In the near future it is necessary for India to open its market for world companies in the agricultural sector which is in agreement with W.T.O. This time will be a challenging one for India.

7. Educational and Technical Development. Globalisation and Liberalization have put a great effect on the education and technical sector which has been a revolution. World is shrinking due to means of transport and communication. Internet and computer has brought a revolution in this sector.

8. Change in the Form of Classes. Globalisation has changed the form of different classes. In 20th century only three main classes i.e. higher class, middle class and lower class were there but now the number of classes has been increased.

9. Privatization. One of the good effects of globalization can be seen in the form of Privatisation. Many Public Sector Undertakings (P.S.U.’s) like V.S.N.L., I.P.C.L., NALCO are now in the hands of private parties because of which they are earning more profits.

10. Development of Industries. Foreign direct investment is very helpful in achieving a higher rate of economic development. It gives not only advantage to industries but consumers are getting products of better quality and better technology. It gives motivation to Indian industries to compete with the foreign companies in international market. So, all in all the process of globalisation is very good in bringing social change and giving good quality products to consumers.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 8 Modernisation and Globalisation Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 8 Modernisation and Globalisation

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Modernisation and Globalisation Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of these is a structural process of change?
(а) Only Modernisation
(b) Only Globalisation
(c) Both Modernisation and Globalisation
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Both Modernisation and Globalisation

2. Who among the following said that the process of modernisation leads from personal bonds to impersonal relations?
(a) Durkheim
(b) Weber
(c) Karl Marx
(d) None
Answer:
(b) Weber

3. Who among the following said that the process of modernisation occurred from Mechanical Solidarity to Organic Solidarity?
(a) Durkheim
(b) Weber
(c) Karl Marx
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Durkheim

4. What is the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through the increasing volume and variety of cross border transactions in goods and services called?
(a) Westernisation
(b) Sanskritisation
(c) Modernisation
(d) Globalisation
Answer:
(d) Globalisation

5. Globalisation means:
(a) Reduction of trade barriers
(b) Freer flow of technology
(c) Both
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Both

Fill in the Blanks:

1. A charismatic leader is one who is having ……………….. to influence people with his/her personality.
Answer:
charisma

2. In the process of modernisation, the …………….. level entails a change in the attitudes and peculiar personality traits of the person.
Answer:
social

3. LPG stands for liberalization, ………………… and ……………….
Answer:
privatisation, globalisation

4. The transfer of control over ownership from the public sector to the private sector is called………………
Answer:
privatisation

5. ……………. is the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide.
Answer:
Globalisation

True/False:

1. The pace of modernisation varies from society to society.
Answer:
True

2. British policy of least interference at micro-level structures of society that is industrialisation, urbanisation and legal system had brought little or no change at this level.
Answer:
False

3. Modernisation is a systematic process in which change in one sphere leads to changes in another.
Answer:
True

4. The process of globalisation varies from country to country of the world.
Answer:
True

5. Globalisation does not emphasise interdependence.
Answer:
False

Match The Columns:

Column A	Column B
Modernisation	Impersonal Bonds
Globalisation	Mechanical solidarity
Durkheim	Global village
Weber	Technological changes
Marshal Mclluhan	Interdependence

Answer:

Column A	Column B
Modernisation	Technological changes
Globalisation	Interdependence
Durkheim	Mechanical solidarity
Weber	Impersonal Bonds
Marshal Mclluhan	Global village

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Who has given the concept of global village?
Answer:
Marshall Mclluhan has given the concept of global village.

Question 2.
Who has given the concept of mechanical and organic solidarity?
Answer:
Emile Durkheim has given the concept of mechanical and organic solidarity.

Question 3.
Name the process through which the transfer of control over ownership from the public sector to private sector is done.
Answer:
Privatisation.

Question 4.
Name the process through which the reorientation of economies in the direction of market principles is done.
Answer:
Liberalisation.

Question 5.
Name the leader who can influence people with his/her personality.
Answer:
A charismatic leader.

Question 6.
Name four spheres in the process of modernisation.
Answer:
Technology, agriculture, industry and environment are the four spheres in the process of modernisation.

Question 7.
Name three causes of modernisation.
Answer:
Urbanisation, modernisation, modern education are the three causes of modernisation.

Question 8.
Name two characteristics of modernisation.
Answer:

• This is a lengthy and continuous process.
• It brings a change in every sector of society.

Question 9.
Name two characteristics of globalisation.
Answer:

• This process has increased the interdependence among countries.
• It leads to the free flow of people, technology and ideas.

Question 10.
What do you understand the charismatic leaders?
Answer:
That leader who is having some charismatic features in his personality and who can influence public with his personality.

Question 11.
What does LPG stand for?
Answer:
Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you understand by modernisation?
Or
Write a note on modernisation.
Answer:
The meaning of modernisation is adopting new ways of living life and modern values. Initially, its meaning was taken in quite a narrow manner but now changes in the agricultural economy and industrial economy are also included in it.

Question 2.
Discuss briefly two characteristics of modernisation.
Answer:

• This is a revolutionary process in which society changes itself from traditional to modern. In this, complete change comes in the living style of people.
• The process of modernisation is quite lengthy which takes many generations for becoming modern from traditional.

Question 3.
Discuss briefly two causes of modernisation.
Answer:

• Due to the advent of western education, people started getting an education and they started adopting modern ideas of western countries.
• Industrialization brought many inventions and humans were replaced by machines. It brought modernisation to society.

Question 4.
What do you understand by globalisation?
Or
Globalisation.
Answer:
In simple language, the meaning of globalisation is an unlimited and unrestricted exchange of goods, services, ideas, information, people and capital between different countries. It breaks downs the economic, social and cultural barriers between countries. All this has been made possible with the help of developed means of communication.

Question 5.
What do you understand by privatisation?
Answer:
The government has formed many public sector companies and the process of selling such companies to private hands is known as privatisation. We can take many examples of privatisation such as NALCO, VSNL. Actually govt, always try to sell off the loss making companies. This is privatisation.

Question 6.
What do you understand by liberalisation?
Answer:
Removing unnecessary restrictions from a controlled economy is known as liberalisation. Removing unnecessary restrictions from industries and trade to make the economy more open and competitive is called liberalisation. It is an economic process and a process of bringing economic changes in society.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Differentiate between traditional and modern society.
Answer:

• Traditional societies have subsistence economies. It means production is done only to fulfil needs but in modern societies, production is done while keeping the market in mind.
• Simple division of labour is there in traditional societies which are based on gender but modern societies are based on the division of labour and specialisation with many bases.
• People of traditional societies are locally interdependent but in modern societies, people of the whole world are interdependent.
• Technology in traditional society is at the primary level but modern societies have developed technology available with them.

Question 2.
Differentiate between mechanical and organic solidarity.
Answer:

• Mechanical solidarity connects an individual with society without any middleman. Inorganic society, an individual depends on society because he depends upon other individuals.
• Mechanical solidarity is based on similarities but the base of organic solidarity is the division of labour.
• The strength of mechanical solidarity lies in the power of collective consciousness but the origin of organic solidarity lies in functional differentiation.
• Mechanical solidarity was available in ancient and old societies but organic solidarity is the main feature of modern societies in which division of labour is the main feature of life.

Question 3.
What is modernisation? Discuss its two levels.
Answer:
Meaning of modernisation. See Question No. 1 of short answer type questions. Two levels of modernisation,

• The individual-level includes a change in the attitudes and specific personality features of an individual. There is a transformation with respect to acceptance of new ideas, rational points and readiness to express ideas.
• At the societal level, modernization is characterised by the specificity of roles and goals in the institutional spheres i.e. education, tolerance, communication, secularisation, family, marriage, social mobility etc.

Question 4.
What is globalisation? Name two types of globalisation.
Answer:
Globalisation is a process in which the economy of one country gets connected with the economies of other countries. In simple words, the unrestricted movement of goods, services, humans, capital etc. between different countries is called globalisation. With this process economies of different countries come in contact with each other. There is free movement of trade in countries. In this way the process of integration of different economies is globalization. It is of many types such as economic globalisation in which different economies of the world get connected and technological globalisation in which technology developed in one country reaches another country.

Question 5.
Substantiate the concept of globalisation with the help of an example.
Answer:
Globalisation is a process in which the economy of one country gets connected with the economies of other countries. In simple words, the unrestricted movement of goods, services, humans, capital etc. between different countries is called globalisation. With this process economies of different countries come in contact with each other. There is free movement of trade in countries. In this way the process of integration of different economies is globalization. It is of many types such as economic globalisation in which different economies of the world get connected and technological globalisation in which technology developed in one country reaches another country.

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you understand by modernisation? Discuss its characteristics in detail.
Or
Discuss in detail the characteristics of modernisation.
Answer:
The process of modernization came with the development of modern societies. The process of modernization was started in India after the advent of Britishers. It means that when people come in contact with the people of western culture then many changes came in them. Modernization is the main feature of modern society.

According to M.N. Srinivas, “Difference exists in the processes of modernization and westernization. The concept of westernization is a morally more neutral concept than the concept of modernization. We cannot come to know about the goodness or badness of any culture in it. But modernization is not a value-free concept because modernization is always considered as good and better.” That’s why Srinivas has given more importance to westernization than modernization. He has not given the difference in them but according to him, the results of modernization are always good and better. So from the views of Srinivas, it is clear that the process of modernization is always progressive. Different sociologists have given different views about it which are given below:

1. According to Marrion J. Levy, “My definition of modernization hinges on the use of inanimate tools to multiply the effect of effort. I conceive each of these two elements as the basis of continum. A society will be considered more or less modernized to the extent that its members use inanimate sources of power and or use tools to multiply the effects of these efforts. Neither of these elements is either totally absent from or exclusively present in any society.”

2. According to Weener, “There are many aspects of modernization.”

• Political Modernization. In these important institutions, political parties, parliaments, right to vote, development of secret vote which are capable of reaching at any participant decision, etc. are included.
• Cultural Modernization. It produces likeness with ideologies and secularization.
• Economic Modernization. It is different from industrialization.

According to Dr. Yogender Singh, “Modernization includes rational attitude, universalistic view point, sympathy, scientific world view, humanity, technological advancement etc.” So we can say that the process of modernization is that process in which change comes in old system and new and better system takes place of old system. This process exists in any society but its degree is different in different societies.

Characteristics Of Modernization:

1. It leads to the development of urbanization and industrialization. Industrialization also exists with urbanization. Wherever big industries were established, cities were also developed there. With this process the population of village started to move towards cities. Means of communication and transport have brought many changes in urban society. That’s why many changes came in institutions like family, religion and caste etc. That’s why change came in urbanization. That’s why we believe that urbanization and modernization are interrelated. Wherever cities are developed modernization exists there. That’s why we can see more progress in urban society as compared to rural communities.

2. This process develops education. With the process of modernzation educational sector has been developed very quickly. Lot of development has come in technical education. In ancient times only higher castes were given religious education. But with the progress of society, need was felt of technical institutions. That’s why technical institutions were opened. Except this the importance of occupational education was increased because every person started to get work according to his ability. The process of specialization is also increased. Whichever person gets technical education, gets job or work. In this way the process of modernization has brought many changes in the educational sector.

3. It increases the international relations. Cooperation is increased in different countries with the process of modernization. Every country gets security with the advents of U.N.O. To produce peaceful atmosphere in the world mutual relations in different countries were necessary. U.N.O. has tried to protect human rights. It has also given its views to resolve the personal problems of any country. It’s main aim is to maintain peace in the world. If conflict starts in two countries then U.N.O. tries to resolve their dispute. In this way process of modernization has developed the atmosphere of love and cooperation at international level.

4. This process develops and increases the process of social differentiation. With the process of modernization, our society becomes complex and the process of differentiation has been increased. With the material development of society number of social differentiation has been increased. With this process we can come to know about that process with which society is divided into different parts.

This process never allows the feeling of hatredness to come in humans and groups. In this way when society moves from simple situation to complex situation then differentiation definitely exists in society. Without this process we can divide the functions in society. The way in which this process of modernization develops, in that same way every sector of society i.e. religious, economic, educational etc. starts to develop. That’s why the process of differentiation takes the pace and speed.

5. It increases social mobility. Social mobility is the main feature of modern
societies. Specialization of division of labour in urban societies, differentiation of occupations, business, industries, facilities of means of communication and transport has brought great pace in social mobility. Now every person can become rich from the state of poverty with his ability and brain. Now they adopt that occupation in which he sees more profit. Even they change their place of living due to occupation. In this way, with the process of social mobility, new values were developed instead of traditional values.

6. Social reform movements came into being due to this. Social,reform movements started to develop through the process of modernization, Whenever any change comes in society then it has both good and bad effects on society. Whenever we look at its good effects then we feel that progress has come in society but whenever we look at its bad effects then we can come to know about the disorganization of society. Many social reform movements came into being due to this process whose main aim was to eradicate social evils from the society so that the balance of society can be maintaind. Progress also comes, with this, in society. All those social evils are being eradicated from society through these movements which bring downfall of the society. In this way changes come in society due to this process.

7. It changes the status of individuals: Process of modernization changes the status of a person. In earlier societies it was necessary for a person to adopt hereditary occupation. But with this process, a number of occupations were emerged and specialization was produced. Because of this the status of a person started to change at once. Class system came into being in place of caste system. Humans started to get status according to their ability. In this way the status of different groups and organizations changes with this process.

Question 2.
Write a note on modernisation.
Answer:
The process of modernization came with the development of modern societies. The process of modernization was started in India after the advent of Britishers. It means that when people come in contact with the people of western culture then many changes came in them. Modernization is the main feature of modern society.

According to M.N. Srinivas, “Difference exists in the processes of modernization and westernization. The concept of westernization is a morally more neutral concept than the concept of modernization. We cannot come to know about the goodness or badness of any culture in it. But modernization is not a value-free concept because modernization is always considered as good and better.” That’s why Srinivas has given more importance to westernization than modernization. He has not given the difference in them but according to him, the results of modernization are always good and better. So from the views of Srinivas, it is clear that the process of modernization is always progressive. Different sociologists have given different views about it which are given below:

1. According to Marrion J. Levy, “My definition of modernization hinges on the use of inanimate tools to multiply the effect of effort. I conceive each of these two elements as the basis of the continuum. A society will be considered more or less modernized to the extent that its members use inanimate sources of power and or use tools to multiply the effects of these efforts. Neither of these elements is either totally absent from or exclusively present in any society.”

2. According to Weener, “There are many aspects of modernization.”

• Political Modernization. In these important institutions, political parties, parliaments, right to vote, development of secret vote which are capable of reaching at any participant decision, etc. are included.
• Cultural Modernization. It produces likeness with ideologies and secularization.
• Economic Modernization. It is different from industrialization.

According to Dr. Yogender Singh, “Modernization includes rational attitude, universalistic view point, sympathy, scientific world view, humanity, technological advancement etc.” So we can say that the process of modernization is that process in which change comes in old system and new and better system takes place of old system. This process exists in any society but its degree is different in different societies.

Question 3.
Enumerate various causes of modernisation.
Or
Describe four causes of modernisation.
Or
Explain urbanisation and industrialisation as responsible causes for modernisation.
Or
Discuss various causes of modernisation.
Answer:
There are many causes of modernisation and some of them are as follows:

1. Urbanisation. With the advent of the British in India, the process of urbanisation started to develop over here. They established many major Indian cities such as Kolkata, Chenai, Mumbai etc. After Indian independence, this process grew rapidly. It has been said that urban areas have a better infrastructure as compared to rural areas. One can live a better life in cities. That’s why from last few decades, rural people started migrating to urban areas. There can be few other reasons such as more employment opportunities, better health facilities, educational institution, better entertainment facilities etc. In this way, the process of urbanisation has greatly helped in increasing this process of modernisation.

2. Industrialisation. The meaning of urbanisation is the process of industrial development. Due to industrial revolution, many large scale industries were established and gradually many changes came in machinery. New and modern machines further enhanced the production process. All the machines and technology spread everywhere. Production process changed frflm hands to machines which helped in increasing the process of modernisation. ‘

3. Education. Education helps in finding abilities of an individual and fills in him the knowledge. Only because of education, people make new inventions. This is considered as an important symbol of development. Because after getting education, people make new inventions, that’s way it is considered quite important in bringing modernisation.

4. Charismatic Leadership. Charismatic leader is that one who influences others with his personality. He holds the capacity of influencing others and many people start to follow him. Such leaders, due to their charismatic personality, motivate their followers to adopt modern ideas and values. Consequently modernisation comes in society.

5. Mass Media. In mass media, we include newspaper, magazines, books, T.V. radio, films, internet etc. Such means of mass media opened up new ideas, ways of behaviour, information for the traditional minded people. To bring out new information, mass media emerged as a very important mean which helped in increasing modernisation.

Question 4.
Write a note on the process of modernisation.
Answer:
Modernisation is the process which has greatly influenced every aspect of our society. It also includes the spread of new system with the passage of time and this has changed even social structure and psychological facts. Because society becomes more productive and progressive, that’s why it becomes more complex from social and cultural point of view. About this, Max Weber has rightly said, “With the change in modernisation process personal relations convert into impersonal relations.” Here Emile Durkheim also says, “With the change in modernisation, mechanical unity of society gets converted into organic solidarity.

With the advent of industrialisation, change came in every sector of society and society changed from traditional to modern. All this was made possible when people of less developed area started moving to developed area. To start the process of modernisation, few pre-requisites are necessary such as the adoption of new educational system, wish to adopt new technology etc. Sociologists have given four interrelated processes in modernisation and these are:

• In the technological sector, transformation comes from simple to scientific technology. For example change of handloom to power loom.
• In the agricultural sector, this change came from subsistence economy to market economy. For example, presently, farmers with the help of labourers, grow cash crops to sell in the market.
• In the industrial sector, it gets transformed from human labour to mechanised labour. For example, during earlier times, agriculture was done with plough, now it is done with a tractor.
• In the environmental sector, rural people are migrating to urban areas. For example, people living in the nearby villages started migrating to cities to get work in industries.

Modernisation can be understood at two levels. At individual level, change comes in individual’s behaviour and his specific traits. Change also comes in his acceptance of new ideas, his approach and wish to express ideas. Modern individual lays stress on making plans, organization and showing ability. He believes in science and technology. Presently laying stress on modernity is spreading everywhere in the world.

Question 5.
Write a note on globalisation.
Answer:
The process of Globalisation is a wide economic process which has been spread in all the societies and countries. Different countries have free trade and economic relations in this process. Actually not even a single country is completely self-dependent to fulfil its needs. It has to depend upon other countries to fulfil the basic needs of its people. With this all countries are dependent upon each other to fulfil their needs. That’s why because of this mutual dependence, mutual relations were increased in different countries and one idea came into being to increase relations of free trade with other countries. This idea of increasing economic relations and free trade is given the name of Globalization. The concept of Globalization is the concept of liberalisation in which different countries are opening their doors for other countries to have duty free trade relations among them.

This concept of Globalization is not very old. It is only 25-30 years old and has taken the whole world in its fold. That’s why the world is shrinking these days. We can get the foreign made goods while living in our small town or city. We can see any sector of the country. For example, many foreign cars like Mercedees, General Motors, Rolls Royce, Farrari, Honda, Mitsubishi, Hyundai, Skoda, Toyota etc. have come to India, which were not available in the decade of 1980’s. It is happening because of Globalisation and liberalisation because of which market of our country has been opened for foreign companies. In this way a lot of foreign made goods and Indian goods are there in our country.

It is Globalisation in which different countries are opening their doors for foreign companies and are encouraging free trade. These days world is shrinking and it is just like a small village or town. Government is increasing foreign direct investments (FDI) in every sector. This is called Globalization.

At the end of 20th century, a new process came forward which greatly influenced whole of the world on the basis of mutual exchange and interdependence. This process is known as globalisation. It is a multi-aspect process. Presently whole of the world has become a global world. Just within few minutes, we come to know about what is going on in the whole world. Presently, world is changing into a society. Due to globalisation, people are migrating to other countries, With the help of means of communication, we can talk with any one sitting in any part of the world and this has been made possible only with internet and globalisation.

Question 6.
What is globalisation and discuss its types.
Or
Highlight technological globalisation as type of globalisation.
Answer:
Meaning of globalisation. See the previous q.no. 5. Types of globalisation. There are many type of globalisation which are given below:

1. Ecological globalisation. In this type of globalisation, we can include environmental pollution which is affecting ozone layers and there is increase in global warming. On world level, efforts are being made to solve this problem. Agreements are signed between countries to reduce environment pollution. To save ozone layer, a Montreal Protocol was signed to reduce the level of carbon dioxide emitted in atmosphere.

2. Economic globalisation. The meaning of economic globalisation is the interdependence occurring due to the increasing exchange of goods, services and capital in the whole world. Due to this interdependence, we can see the wrong impact of one economy at world level. For example one global problem came in 2009 which greatly affected most of the countries.

3. Technological globalisation. The meaning of technological globalisation is revolutionary change coming in the means of communication with which one part of the world gets easily connected with other parts. Modern means of transport have reduced the geographical distances and many exchanges started. For example mobile, internet etc.

4. Cultural globalisation. The meaning of cultural globalisation is exchange of present rules, ideas, values etc. of one part with the other. This exchange has been made possible with the help of internet, media, travelling etc. It increased interaction between the people of different cultures and exchange of cultural customs started between them.

5. Political globalisation. In political globalisation, same policies are adopted everywhere. Due to their personal problems, different countries are signing agreements with others. That’s way many international organizations came forward such as United Nations.

Question 7.
Discuss in detail the characteristics of globalisation.
Answer:
Globalisation has come into being because of the interdependence of different countries. Different countries are dependent upon each other for their needs. That’s why they are doing export and import of things. That’s why the concept of Globalisation has come in front of us. Its main characteristics are given below:

1. World Trade. The first and necessary condition of Globalisation is world trade. It is the main base of business of the world. It unites the people of different sectors living in different countries and gives them business. For example. India has lot of surplus tea. That’s why different countries of the world are importing tea from India. In the same way almost all the countries of the world are dependent upon Arabian countries for crude oil. In this with the exchange of goods and because of business they are coming closer to each other. People of India depend upon Arabian people and they depend upon us. That’s why world trade and Globalisation has been increased.

2. Economic Globalisation. Globalisation has established a new economy in the world. Now economy of one country depends upon the economy of another country. That’s why the concept of World economy has come into being. Different countries unite with each other because of economy and the exchange of cultural traits starts between them. Investment, exchange of division of labour, specialization, production, consumption etc. play an important role in this business. Economic Globalisation has encouraged Capitalism. Now people are thinking even for international economy and structure.

3. Globalisation of Market. Globalisation has increased the market to a great extent. Now Globalisation of market is not being done only on the basis of production but also on the basis of consumption. Now companies are producing things while keeping in mind the market of other country or international market. Even some countries depend on others for consumption. In this way production and consumption depend upon the foreign market. With this the business with other country increases and foreign exchange comes in country. In this way marke.t depends upon foreign countries. We can find a number of foreign made goods in our market. Even the eatable things are available in cans in market. In this way the market is expanded with globalisation.

4. Division of Labour. Globalisation has encouraged the division of labour: Now people are doing many courses to go to foreign countries. For example, people are doing a number of computer courses so that they can earn money in a foreign country. We can see many types of advertisements in newspapers that specialists in different countries are required. Division of labour is encouraged because specialists are in great demand in different countries. It is the feature of globalisation that has encouraged the division of labour.

5. Migration of Labourers to Other Countries. Another feature of globalisation is the migration of workers from one country to another country in search of work. Generally, people, specialists in different sectors from South Asian countries are going to western countries for work because they think that they can earn more in western countries. Workers of different countries are working in different countries and are earning money. In this way because of globalisation people of different countries are able to migrate to other countries.

6. World Economy. Another feature of globalisation is the encouragement of the world economy. Now the economy of one country is not restricted only to that country because its economy is affected by the economies of other countries. With the increase in business, economies depend upon each other. In this way because of inter¬dependence world economy and world trade has been increased.

Question 8.
Write a note on the process of globalisation.
Answer:
The process of Globalisation is a wide economic process which has been spread in all the societies and countries. Different countries have free trade and economic relations in this process. Actually not even a single country is completely self-dependent to fulfil its needs. It has to depend upon other countries to fulfil the basic needs of its people. With this all countries are dependent upon each other to fulfil their needs. That’s why because of this mutual dependence, mutual relations were increased in different countries and one idea came into being to increase relations of free trade with other countries. This idea of increasing economic relations and free trade is given the name of Globalization. The concept of Globalization is the concept of liberalisation in which different countries are opening their doors for other countries to have duty free trade relations among them.

This concept of Globalization is not very old. It is only 25-30 years old and has taken the whole world in its fold. That’s why the world is shrinking these days. We can get the foreign made goods while living in our small town or city. We can see any sector of the country. For example, many foreign cars like Mercedees, General Motors, Rolls Royce, Farrari, Honda, Mitsubishi, Hyundai, Skoda, Toyota etc. have come to India, which were not available in the decade of 1980’s. It is happening because of Globalisation and liberalisation because of which market of our country has been opened for foreign companies. In this way a lot of foreign made goods and Indian goods are there in our country.

It is Globalisation in which different countries are opening their doors for foreign companies and are encouraging free trade. These days world is shrinking and it is just like a small village or town. Government is increasing foreign direct investments (FDI) in every sector. This is called Globalization.

At the end of 20th century, a new process came forward which greatly influenced whole of the world on the basis of mutual exchange and interdependence. This process is known as globalisation. It is a multi-aspect process. Presently whole of the world has become a global world. Just within few minutes, we come to know about what is going on in the whole world. Presently, world is changing into a society. Due to globalisation, people are migrating to other countries, With the help of means of communication, we can talk with any one sitting in any part of the world and this has been made possible only with internet and globalisation.

Meaning of globalisation. See the previous q.no. 5. Types of globalisation. There are many type of globalisation which are given below:

1. Ecological globalisation. In this type of globalisation, we can include environmental pollution which is affecting ozone layers and there is increase in global warming. On world level, efforts are being made to solve this problem. Agreements are signed between countries to reduce environment pollution. To save ozone layer, a Montreal Protocol was signed to reduce the level of carbon dioxide emitted in atmosphere.

2. Economic globalisation. The meaning of economic globalisation is the interdependence occurring due to the increasing exchange of goods, services and capital in the whole world. Due to this interdependence, we can see the wrong impact of one economy at world level. For example one global problem came in 2009 which greatly affected most of the countries.

3. Technological globalisation. The meaning of technological globalisation is revolutionary change coming in the means of communication with which one part of the world gets easily connected with other parts. Modern means of transport have reduced the geographical distances and many exchanges started. For example mobile, internet etc.

4. Cultural globalisation. The meaning of cultural globalisation is exchange of present rules, ideas, values etc. of one part with the other. This exchange has been made possible with the help of internet, media, travelling etc. It increased interaction between the people of different cultures and exchange of cultural customs started between them.

5. Political globalisation. In political globalisation, same policies are adopted everywhere. Due to their personal problems, different countries are signing agreements with others. That’s way many international organizations came forward such as United Nations.

Globalisation has come into being because of the interdependence of different countries. Different countries are dependent upon each other for their needs. That’s why they are doing export and import of things. That’s why the concept of Globalisation has come in front of us. Its main characteristics are given below:

1. World Trade. The first and necessary condition of Globalisation is world trade. It is the main base of business of the world. It unites the people of different sectors living in different countries and gives them business. For example. India has lot of surplus tea. That’s why different countries of the world are importing tea from India. In the same way almost all the countries of the world are dependent upon Arabian countries for crude oil. In this with the exchange of goods and because of business they are coming closer to each other. People of India depend upon Arabian people and they depend upon us. That’s why world trade and Globalisation has been increased.

2. Economic Globalisation. Globalisation has established a new economy in the world. Now economy of one country depends upon the economy of another country. That’s why the concept of World economy has come into being. Different countries unite with each other because of economy and the exchange of cultural traits starts between them. Investment, exchange of division of labour, specialization, production, consumption etc. play an important role in this business. Economic Globalisation has encouraged Capitalism. Now people are thinking even for international economy and structure.

3. Globalisation of Market. Globalisation has increased the market to a great extent. Now Globalisation of market is not being done only on the basis of production but also on the basis of consumption. Now companies are producing things while keeping in mind the market of other country or international market. Even some countries depend on others for consumption. In this way production and consumption depend upon the foreign market. With this the business with other country increases and foreign exchange comes in country. In this way marke.t depends upon foreign countries. We can find a number of foreign made goods in our market. Even the eatable things are available in cans in market. In this way the market is expanded with globalisation.

4. Division of Labour. Globalisation has encouraged the division of labour: Now people are doing many courses to go to foreign countries. For example, people are doing a number of computer courses so that they can earn money in a foreign country. We can see many types of advertisements in newspapers that specialists in different countries are required. Division of labour is encouraged because specialists are in great demand in different countries. It is the feature of globalisation that has encouraged the division of labour.

5. Migration of Labourers to Other Countries. Another feature of globalisation is the migration of workers from one country to another country in search of work. Generally, people, specialists in different sectors from South Asian countries are going to western countries for work because they think that they can earn more in western countries. Workers of different countries are working in different countries and are earning money. In this way because of globalisation people of different countries are able to migrate to other countries.

6. World Economy. Another feature of globalisation is the encouragement of the world economy. Now the economy of one country is not restricted only to that country because its economy is affected by the economies of other countries. With the increase in business, economies depend upon each other. In this way because of inter¬dependence world economy and world trade have been increased.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 7 Westernisation and Sanskritisation Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 7 Westernisation and Sanskritisation

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The process in which lower caste people start to imitate upper caste people is known as
(a) Westernization
(b) Sanskritization
(c) Secularization
(d) Modernization
Answer:
(b) Sanskritization

2. The change which comes in society or culture of any country is known as …………….
(a) social change
(b) religious change
(c) cultural change
(d) evolutionary change
Answer:
(c) cultural change

3. Which of these books was written by M.N. Srinivas?
(a) Cultural change in India
(b) Social change in Modern India
(c) Geographical change in Modern India
(d) Regional change in Modern India
Answer:
(b) Social change in Modern India

4. Who gave the concept of westernisation?
(a) Srinivas
(b) Majumdar
(c) Ghurye
(d) Mukherjee
Answer:
(a) Srinivas

5. What was the impact of westernization on our country?
(a) Weakening of caste system
(b) Increase in number of divorces
(c) Advent of nuclear families
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

6. What is required to be a dominant caste?
(a) More population
(b) More arable land
(c) Higher status in caste hierarchy
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

Fill in the Blanks:

1. …………….. gave the concept of westernization.
Answer:
Srinivas

2. In westernization …………….. is known as a model.
Answer:
British

3. …………… and ……………. brought many changes in Indian society.
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Rabindra Nath Tagore

4. First three castes had to go through ……………. samskara.
Answer:
Upanayan

5. Srinivas used the sanskritization instead of using …………………
Answer:
Brahminization

6. Srinivas studied the ……………. people.
Answer:
Coorg

True/False:

1. Srinivas was the student of Ghurye.
Answer:
True

2. Educated Indians were the carriers of westernisation.
Answer:
True

3. Westernisation brought many changes in Indian society.
Answer:
True

4. In Sanskritisation, living style of upper castes is adopted.
Answer:
True

5. To be a dominant caste, more arable land is required.
Answer:
True

6. Srinivas studied the Coorgs of south India.
Answer:
True

One Word/One Line Questions Answers:

Question 1.
Who gave the concept of Sanskritization?
Answer:
M. N. Srinivas.

Question 2.
Who gave the concept of Westernization?
Answer:
M. N. Srinivas.

Question 3.
Give any two, helping factors of Sanskritization.
Answer:
Industrialisation and Modernization.

Question 4.
In which book did Srinivas explain Sanskritization?
Answer:
Social change in Modern India.

Question 5.
What is cultural change?
Answer:
When change comes in culture or society of any country, it is called cultural change.

Question 6.
What is meant by Westernisation?
Answer:
When, in our country, western living style, habits etc. are adopted it is known as Westernisation.

Question 7.
What is Sanskritisation?
Answer:
When people of lower castes imitate upper castes and uplift their status by imitating them, it is called sanskritisation.

Question 8.
Which country, in Westernisation, is considered a role model?
Answer:
In Westernisation, England is considered a role model.

Question 9.
Which social reformers brought many changes in Indian society?
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayanand Saraswati, Jyoti ba Phuley, Vivekananda etc.

Question 10.
What is Gurukul?
Answer:
During ancient times, children were taught in Gurukuls.

Question 11.
Which castes are known as ‘DWIJA’?
Answer:
Upper three castes-Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya.

Question 12.
Where do Coorgs live?
Answer:
Coorgs live near Mysore (Karnataka).

Question 13.
Lower castes of Mysore adopted the life style of which caste?
Answer:
Lower castes of Mysore adopted the life style of Lingayat community.

Question 14.
While analysing which village, does Srinivas use the word ‘dominant caste’?
Answer:
Rampur village situated near Mysore (Karnataka).

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is meant by Sanskritization?
Answer:
When lower caste people start imitating upper caste people and try to adopt their living style, habits etc. to uplift their social status, this process is known as sanskritization. It only changes social status but not the caste.

Question 2.
Give any two features of Sanskritization.
Answer:

• In sanskritization, lower caste people adopt the living style of upper caste people. So, imitation is a necessary element in this process.
• The process of sanskritization is a continuous process in which change comes in social status of lower castfefe.

Question 3.
What is Westernisation?
Answer:
Srinivas says, “I have used the term westernization to characterise the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes occuring at different levels, technology, institutions, ideology and values.

Question 4.
What was the impact of Westernisation on Indian society?
Answer:

• Westernisation broke the clutches of caste system and it weakened.
• Due to Westernisation, women started getting education, came out of their houses and started doing jobs.
• Marriages started breaking down and number of divorces increased.

Question 5.
What is Dominant caste?
Answer:
According to Srinivas, dominant caste is that caste in village which has lot of arable land at village level, more population and higher status in local hierarchy. Presently few more attributes are attached with it such as western education, jobs in administration etc.

Question 6.
What is upanayan samskara?
Answer: Children of first three castes had to wear a sacred thread which was known as upanayan. After completition of this samskara, they moved to gurukul to take education. It was one important Samskara of Hinduism and lower castes were not allowed in this ceremony.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Sanskritization.
Answer:
The word Sanskritization was used by Indian sociologist M.N. Srinivas to explain the process of social mobility in traditional Indian society. This is a process in which lower castes collectively adopt the customs, traditions and ways of life of upper caste people. Through this process, lower caste people even sacrifice their actual traditions, customs etc.

Question 2.
Characteristics of Sanskritization.
Answer:

• Universal Process. Whole of the Indian society was affected by this. It means that it was not limited only to Hindu castes but its influence was also seen among Sikhs, Jains and Muslims.
• Group Mobility. This process affects whole of the group. Every lower caste group wants to lift itself upwards in society.
• Positional Change. In Sanskritization, positional change takes place but not the structural change. It means that caste hierarchy remains as it is.
• Imitation. Imitation is a necessary element of this process because lower caste people try to follow or imitate the living style of upper castes.

Question 3.
Any two sources of Sanskritization.
Answer:

• Impact of Western Education. First of all the upper castes were affected by the western education as they were first to take this education. Later on other castes also joined this race of western education.
• Impact of Urbanization. Industrial development led to development of urbanization. Restrictions of caste system came to an end with which personal change also took place. In urban conditions, it was very easy for lower castes to hide their actual caste and to adopt the new caste.

Question 4.
Any definition of westernization.
Or
Westernization.
Answer:
According to M.N. Srinivas, “I have used the term westernization to characterise the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels, technology, institutions, ideology and values.”

Question 5.
How has westernization affected our society?
Answer:

• Caste System has weakened due to westernization.
• Separation in marriages and number of divorces increased due to westernization.
• Females came out of four walls of house to work in offices.
• Joint families started to change into Nuclear families.

Question 6.
What are the results of westernization?
Answer:

• Change in Institutions. Many changes came in institutions of our society due to westernization. Strictness of marriage, family, caste system, religion no more pravails in modern society.
• Change in Values. Values of society are also changing due to this. Every one came to know about right of equality after getting education. Individualism and formal relations are increasing day by day.
• Change in importance of religion. The importance of religion has also been decreased due to this. In earlier times people were afraid of religion but now they use only that much of religion which is required.
• Spread of education. Education in our country is spreading day by day. Literacy rate of our country is 74% and it is increasing day by day.

Question 7.
Define Sanskritization
Answer:
According to M.N. Srinivas, “Sanskritization means not only the adoption of new customs and habits but also exposure to new ideas and values which have frequent expression in the vast body of Sanskrit literature, sacred as well as secular. Karma, dharma, pap, maya, sansar, moksha are examples of some of the most common Sanskrit theological ideas and when people become Sanskritized these words are used frequently.

Question 8.
Explain the meaning of Westernization.
Answer:
According to M.N. Srinivas, “I have used the term westernization to characterize the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels, technology, institutions, ideology and values.” So from this it is clear that concept of westernization includes the changes which came in institutions, ideology etc. of Indian society and which came due to political and cultural contact with western countries.

Question 9.
Give differences between Sanskritization and Westernization.
Answer:

Sanskritization	Westernization
Many restrictionsare being kept on eating habits in this.	No such restrictions are being kept in this process.
Process of Sanskritization is internal and purely Indian.	Process of westernization is external and foreigner.
This process is going on from the ages.	This process started when Britishers came to India.
Sanskritized caste gets higher status with mobility.	There is no change in status of caste in westernization.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What are the features of Sanskritisation?
Answer:
1. Sanskritization is a Universal Process. The process of Sanskritization was not only related with one caste or even caste system but this process exerted impact on whole of Indian society. This process existed in every part of the country and was an important process of Indian history. It is quite possible that it might have dominance in one age and not in another age but Sanskritization definitely took place. But without doubt we can say that this process is a universal process. This process exists even among tribes and sub tribes. Generally tribes live away from main stream and Hindu society and they are given even lower status than of lower castes. But tribals consider themselves superior than the Hindus. Some tribes have adopted the living style, eating habits, customs etc. of those Hindus which live nearby their areas. In this way not only middle and lower castes but tribal people are also adopting this process.

2. Positional change does happen in it but not the structural change. In Sanskritization, the people of lower castes adopt the living style of higher castes and change comes in their status. Their position changes within their own caste but it hardly changes the structure of caste system. Hierarchy of castes never changes but it remains as it is. In other words, we can say that in this process, people of lower caste can adopt the customs and living styles of their ideal caste but cannot become members of their ideal caste. It is so because caste is based on birth. One can adopt the living style of Brahmana but cannot become a Brahmana.

3. Imitation is a necessary element of Sanskritization. In the process, lower caste people observe the life of upper caste and then they try to follow that life style. In this Way imitation is a necessary element of Sanskritization. It means that lower caste people used to follow the ways of living, eating habits etc. of upper castes. This process even starts with imitation. It means lower caste people begin to imitate the customs of upper castes. Gradually, their status is uplifted in the society. In other words, change comes on caste basis and mobility is possible in caste system.

4. Sanskritization is a process of change in relative sense. In the process of Sanskritization, it has been observed that even upper caste people are imitating tribal people. This process has a local form as well. As compared to upper castes, many local differences have been found among cultures of Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and lower castes. In this way the Sanskritization of few subcastes of lower castes takes place according to local form.

5. Change in status of BrahmAnswer: This process not only brings change in status of lower castes but it also changes the status of upper castes. Brahmanas also started to change themselves according to . western culture. In ancient times, certain restrictions were there on upper castes like not to use meat and alcohol, not to use blade etc. But when they started to change themsglves according to western culture then their status also saw a number of changes.

6. Upward Mobility. In the process of Sanskritization, people of lower castes start to adopt the life style of upper castes. Gradually their social status moves upward and this is the main feature of Sanskritization. In this process, lower caste people or tribal people change themselves according to ideal caste’s ways of living. But even then, their status never reaches to the status of ideal caste. In this way this is an upward mobility.

7. Change in social status but not in caste. Social status of a person changes in this system but not the caste. It means that person can adopt the ways of living of other caste but cannot change his caste. Person has to remain in that caste, for whole of his life, in which he is born.

8. Sanskritization is a Group Mobility. The process of Sanskritization is not related with one person or a family but is related with a group of castes. Any tribe, lower caste or group tries to uplift its social status with the help of this process. Like any lower caste claims to be upper caste status and adopts the norms and values of upper caste. They even try to uplift their social status on the basis of their ideal caste.

9. Sanskritization is related with social mobility. Sanskritization is related to social mobility. Sanskritization gives birth to mobility. Mobility exists in almost all the societies i.e. in closed society like India and open society like America. As a result, sometimes person claims to achieve higher status as compared to his present status. They belong actually to other caste and write the name of other caste.

Question 2.
Explain the different sources of Sanskritization.
Answer:
According to M.N. Srinivas, there are certain sources of Sanskritization which are given below:

1. Development of means of Communication and Transport. Industrialisation started in India which led to the development of means of transport and communication. That’s why industries started to develop in different parts of the country. Development of industries led to the development of means of transport with which it became easy for people to move from one place to another. People came in contact with members of other castes and they began to travel with each other. In this way, mutual exchange started among different castes. This process led to emergence of process of assimilation. As people travelled with each other, it became very difficult to maintain caste system’s concept of purity and impurity.

In this way the process of Sanskritization was greatly affected by the development of means of transport. This process spread in whole of the country with means of transport. Now we never ask any shopkeeper as to which caste he belongs. With means of transport, people came out of their houses and began to make contacts with people of distant places. In this way these means played a very important role in spreading this process.

2. Urbanization. After 1947, industries developed very quickly in India because of which many cities Came into existence. People of different castes, religion, colour etc. live in cities and cities have more population. People living in urban area are hardly aware of the fact that who is their neighbour and to which caste he belongs. Under these circumstances, lower castes took maximum advantage. When they migrated to urban areas from rural areas then they started to claim themselves as of higher caste. They even adopted life style of upper caste people. Class system is of great importance in cities and person is respected not because of his caste but because of his social status. In this way the process of Sanskritization is very much influenced by the process of urbanisation.

3. Socio-religious Movements. Caste system was one of the important bases of Indian society. It was so strict that no one was allowed to go against the caste system. If any one was trying to do so then he was generally thrown out of the caste. Lower caste people were not allowed to uplift their social status as they were kept at lowest level of social hierarchy. Many socio-religious movements started against this system and it was opposed by many social reformers. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Jytoiba Phooley etc. started many reform movements. All these movements wanted to weaken the caste system.

They tried a lot to uplift the lower caste people and women. Mahatma Gandhi tried a lot to uplift the lower caste people and to eradicate untouchability from the society. He even gave the name of ‘Harijan’ to lower Castes. Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj greatly opposed the caste system and discrimination on the basis of caste. They also tried to remove superiority of upper castes. These social reformers tried to awaken the people. Inter-caste marriages began to take place due to these movements. In this way caste system was weakened and process of Sanskritization was encouraged.

4. Western Education. Before the arrival of the British, Indian educational system was based on religion. But when British arrived in India, they first of all tried tostart their own educational system over here. They treated every one on equal terms. They opened many schools, colleges and arranged education for all the castes. Before them, religious education was given to pupils. But they started to provide western education which was based on science and reasoning. Before Britishers, women were not allowed to take education. But Britishers opened many schools and colleges for girls. Many schools were co-educational schools where both boys and girls used to take education with each other. In this way western education removed the caste discrimination. The process of Sanskritization was encouraged by this and transformation came in ancient Indian social values.

5. Different Occupations. One of the important features of caste system was that one had to adopt the occupation of his caste. His occupation was not based on his wish but was based on his caste. He was not allowed to change his occupation. But large industries were established over here after the arrival of the British. Production came out of the houses and went over to factories. It led to emergence of capitalist system and many new occupations were emerged. Division of labour and specialisation is generally given importance in factories. Now every one likes to adopt occupation of his choice. Person can take education of his choice and can adopt occupation according to his education. A number of new occupations came into being in society. This emergence of new occupations led to weakening up of caste system’s restriction of occupation and the process of Sanskritization was encouraged.

6. New Economic System. The British government played a very important role in transforming Indian society. Before the British, person was restricted to adopt his caste’s occupation. One was allowed to adopt the occupation of that caste in which he was born. But many new industries were established with the arrival of the British. Production began to take place on a large scale. The process of production at home came to an end with which people were forced to come out of their houses to adopt another occupation.

It led to increase in importance of money. Now person wants to earn more money and he adopts that occupation which gives him more money. These days person gets social status on the basis of his wealth. In this way status of person is confined to his wealth. Wealthy person gets more status and respect in the society. An individual now gets more opportunities to earn money. A number of changes came in his living style. In this new economic system, things like untouchability are of no importance. Difference of higher or lower class remains no more in society. New economic system gave stress to the process of Sanskritization and its influence increased in society.

7. New Legal System. When the British arrived in India, they started a new legal system over here and began to treat equally all IndiAnswer: In ancient times, different types of punishments were given for same type of committed crime. This system was changed by the British. This system completely came to end after 1947. New Constitution of India was implemented which gave encouragement to process of Sanskritization. Government tried to uplift the lower castes. They were given reservations in educational institutions and government jobs.

A number of laws were made with which the caste system was greatly affected. In 1955 ‘Untouchability Offence Act’ was passed and untouchability was declared illegal. In 1954 ‘Special Marriage Act’ was passed which gave legal sanction to inter-caste marriage. This Act also tried to eradicate the system of endogamy. In 1937, ‘Arya Marriage Validation Act’ was passed which gave permission to Arya Samajis to marry with each other. Our Constitution has prohibited every one from discriminating others on the basis of caste, colour, creed, age, birth etc. Lower caste people were given a number of facilities. In this way new legal system very much influenced the process of Sanskritisation.

8. Political Effect. After independence, new democratic values were developed in the country. That’s why every citizen of country received a number of political rights. Lower caste people received many opportunities to uplift their social status. People were politically motivated to remove caste based discrimination. Many political parties were formed to gain independence and people of all the castes jointly participated in freedom struggle. People collectively went to jails and lived with each other. These circumstances led to the weakening of caste based discriminations.

Now lower caste people have more importance from political point of view. As they are more in number, that’s why their political importance has been increased. Even few seats are reserved for them in Parliament. In this way, it became very easy for lower caste people to adopt living style of upper castes and the process of Sanskritization increased a lot.

9. Modern Education. In ancient times, religion based education was given to pupils. When the British arrived in India, they gave stress on western education and that’s why many schools, colleges were opened. After independence, even our Constitution says that instead of religious education, secular education must be given. The basic principle of new education is that all humans are equal. Only education can break the clutches of caste system. With education, person can gradually change his caste. Only after getting education, person can improve his caste and status in society. In this way modern education is also a source of Sanskritization.

10. Passion for Money. These days, humans have a lot of passion for money and they have become materialistic. Now every one likes to run behind money. When person becomes wealthy then he wants to uplift his social status and living style. He first of all changes his life style and then he even changes his caste. Gradually, he comes to be known by his changed caste. In this way the process of Sanskritization is also encouraged by the increased importance of wealth.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 7 Westernisation and Sanskritisation Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 7 Westernisation and Sanskritisation

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Westernisation and Sanskritisation Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Change in the beliefs is a:
(a) Structural change
(b) Cultural change
(c) Both
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Both

2. Which of these is a cultural process of change?
Or
Which of these is a change process of Culture?
(a) Westernisation
(b) Sanskritization
(c) Both
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Both

3. The process by which those who occupy traditional low positions attempt to gain a higher position in the <caste hierarchy is called as:
(a) Westernisation
(b) Sanskritisatiori
(c) Modernisation
(d) Globalisation
Answer:
(b) Sanskritisation

4. Who have given the statement, “The changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rules, and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels-technology, institutions, ideology, values.”
(a) Yogendra Singh
(b) M.N. Srinivas
(c) K.L. Sharma
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) M.N. Srinivas

5. The development of westernization is traced from which period:
(a) Vedic period
(b) Post Vedic period
(c) Mughal period
(d) British period
Answer:
(d) British period

Fill in the Blanks:

1. British and Indians were considered the carriers of ……………….. process.
Answer:
westernization

2. ……………….. means concern for the welfare of all irrespective of caste, religion, economic status, age, and sex.
Answer:
Reform movement

3. For the caste to be dominant, it should have ………………., ………………… and ………………
Answer:
more land, more population, higher status

4. …………………. alone are not the object of imitation.
Answer:
Brahmins

True/False:

1. The form and pace of westernisation of India remains same from region to region and from one section of population to another.
Answer:
False

2. Structural change occurs with the process of Sanskritisation.
Answer:
True

3. Sanskritisation is the process where vertical mobility takes place in which one moves in downward direction.
Answer:
False

4. For a caste to be dominant it should own a sizeable amount of the arable land locally available.
Answer:
True

Match The Columns:

Column A	Column B
Hierarchy	Reference Group
Upper Caste	Positional change
Sanskritisation	Ranking of status
Westernisation	Welfare of all
Humanitarianism	Value preference

Answer:

Column A	Column B
Hierarchy	Ranking of status
Upper Caste	Reference Group
Sanskritisation	Positional change
Westernisation	Value preference
Humanitarianism	Welfare of all

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is the process called by which one gains higher position in the caste hierarchy?
Answer:
It is known as Sanskritization.

Question 2.
Name one process by which cultural change occurs.
Answer:
Westernization.

Question 3.
Which period can be considered as the indicator of initiation of westernisation?
Answer:
The British period.

Question 4.
By which process upward mobility takes place by the process of imitation?
Answer:
Sanskritization.

Question 5.
Which cultural process works outside the framework of caste?
Answer:
Brahminization.

Question 8.
From which period the origin of westernisation can be traced?
Answer:
The British period.

Question 7.
Who are considered to be the carriers of westernisation process?
Answer:
Soldiers, those people who were at higher posts, traders and owners of plantations, Christian missionaries etc.

Question 8.
Who has used the term Sanskritisation instead of Brahminisation?
Answer:
M.N. Srinivas.

Question 9.
Name any two groups among the British who helped to spread westernization.
Answer:
Educated Indians, social reformers, Christian missionaries, etc.

Question 10.
Name any one criterion to identify the dominant caste by M.N.Srinivas.
Answer:
More population, more holding of arable land etc.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is meant by Westernisation?
Or
Westernization.
Answer:
M.N. Srinivas used the word westernisation for the changes which came in Indian society during the British rule. According to him, under the impact of Western culture, ways of living, eating, wearing etc. many changes came in Indian society.

Question 2.
Does westernisation lead to social reforms?
Answer:
Yes, westernisation led to social reforms because after getting western education, many Indian social reformers started doing reforms in Indian society. Consequently many social evils were removed such as Sati system, no widow remarriage etc.

Question 3.
What is meant by Sanskritisation?
Or
Sanskritisation.
Answer:
Sanskritisation is a process in which members of lower caste collectively adopt the traditions, customs, ways of living life etc. of upper caste people. Consequently, after one or two generations, their social status automatically moves in upward direction.

Question 4.
What do you understand by humanitarianism?
Answer:
The meaning of humanitarianism is welfare of all irrespective of their caste, age, gender, religion, economic status etc. During the first half of 19th century, humanitarianism became one of the bases of many reforms brought by the British.

Question 5.
Mention various levels at which changes occurred due to westernisation.
Answer:
The process of westernisation brought many changes such as the caste based differences were reduced, people started getting education, changes came in the people’s ways of living and eating, higher status of women, changes in social institutions etc.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What are the various pre-requisites for the process of Sanskritisation?
Answer:

• There is positional change in the process of sanskritisation but there is no structural change. Social structure remains the same.
• Imitation is a necessary element in sanskritisation. It means whatever people observe about their ideal caste, they start doing the same thing.
• There is upward mobility in Sanskritisation because when people adopt living style of upper caste after one or two generations their position also changes in society.
• In the process of sanskritisation, social status of an individual changes but it doesn’t mean that his caste will also change. It remains the same.

Question 2.
Explain the process of Sanskritisation.
Answer:
M.N. Srinivas, an Indian sociologist, gave the concept of sanskritisation. He used this word to explain the process of social mobility in traditional social structure. This is the process in which a lower caste, collectively adopts the customs, traditions, living style etc. to achieve higher status in society. With this process, lower caste persons even sacrifice their traditional customs and traditions.

Question 3.
Why is Sanskritization preferred to the term Brahminisation?
Answer:
M.N. Srinivas preferred the word Sanskritization over Brahminisation and there was a reason behind it. Actually in Brahminisation, lower caste people adopt the ways of living, customs, traditions etc. of Brahmins. But this is not the case in sanskritization. In sanskritization, lower castes adopt ways of living of the upper caste living in their area. It can be any of the three upper castes i.e. Brahmin, Kshatriya or Vaishya. In this the model caste can be any of the upper three castes. . So, Sanskritisation is an open and wide concept but Brahminisation is a small ‘ concept.

Question 4.
Give details on the carriers of westernisation process.
Answer:
Along with the British, Indians are also considered carriers of westernization. There were three British groups which helped in the expansion of this process and these were

• Sepoys and those officers who were at higher posts
• Traders and plantation owners
• Christian missionaries. Except these, there were those Indians who were directly or indirectly in contact with the British.

They were:

• Those Indians came in direct contact with the British living style. They either worked at the homes of the British or those who left Hinduism and adopted Christianity.
• Those Indians were indirectly related to the British. They were those who took western education, started doing government jobs, or started trading.

Question 5.
Sanskritisation results only in positional change in the system and does not lead to any structural change. Discuss.
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that sanskritisation results only in positional change in the system but not the structural change. In this process, social status of 1 an individual changes but not the caste. It means that one can adopt the living style of his model caste but he cannot be included in that caste. One needs to live whole of his life in the caste in which he is born. Any tribal person can adopt life style of any caste but he cannot be a member of that caste.

Question 6.
Bring out differences between westernisation and sanskritisation.
Answer:

• The process of westernisation is a secular process but in sanskritisation aspect of purity and impurity is quite important.
• There is development and upward mobility in westernization but there is imitation and upward mobility in sanskritization.
• The process of westernization works out of caste based structure but the process of sanskritization works within caste based structure.
• With westernisation, change comes in the status of whole society but in sanskritisation social status of an individual changes.

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Write note on westernisation and its features.
Or
Discuss the features of westernisation in detail.
Or
Write a note on westernisation.
Or
What is westernisation? Discuss its features.
Answer:
Generally the meaning of westernization’Is taken by impact of western countries over India. England, France, Germany and’U.S.A. are those western countries which greatly influenced Indian society. Educated class of India tries to imitate life style of the people of these countries. Prof. M.N. Srinivas gave a detailed description of westernization. Other Sociologists also tried to explain westernization but they mainly concentrated on giving explanation of impacts of westernization on Indian society. Srinivas wrote a book ‘Social Change in Modern India’ and in this book he wrote, “I have used the term westernization to characterize the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels, technology, institutions, ideology and values.”

So from this definition it is clear that the concept of westernization includes the changes which come in institutions, ideology etc. of Indian society and which came due to political and cultural contacts with western countries. Westernization can have many ideals like England, U.S.A. or other European countries.

Features Of Westernization:

1. Continue after Independence. The process of westernization hardly came to an end even when Britishers left our country. This process continuously is going on even after independence. From Modern Indian Culture, ways of living, eating habits, new ways of mannerism, spread of western education etc. we can tell that India is westernizing even in today’s age.

2. Westernization is different from modernization. Yet the process of modernization is encouraged by westernization but these both concepts are different from each other. Wersternization is only related with all those good or bad effects over Indian society which were exerted due to British contacts but the process of Modernization includes positive impacts of western and other countries like England, Germany, France, Russia, U.S.A., Japan, China etc. over Indian society. Except this the impact of modern science and technology, information and science over Indian society is also known as modernization.

3. Impact of the British culture on Indian Society. Westernization is the impact of the British culture over Indian society. Yet India is also influenced by other western countries but the process of westernization does not include the impact of other western countries. To clarify this statement Srinivas has written that, “I have used the term westernization to characterize the changes brought about in Indian Society and Culture as a result of over 150 years of the British rule.”

4. Westernization is not confined to urbanites. Impact of westernization was not confined only to urban areas during British empire. But whoever came in their contact like rural farmers, smaller officials, military men etc. became westernized. It was spread even in rural areas as well.

5. Conscious and Unconscious process. The process of westernization is a conscious as well as Unconscious process. Some of the aspects of culture, like language, technology etc. were consciously adopted by the IndiAnswer: But many westernized ideas, values, eating habits, living habits were unconsciously adopted by the IndiAnswer: Eating by sitting on the dining table, saying good morning or good night etc. are some of its examples.

6. Ethically Neutral. Many good, bad, positive, negative, organizational, disorganizational changes came in Indian society through westernization. Westernization is not related with positive and negative aspects of change. All the changes which come under this concept mean ethically westernization is a neutral concept.

Question 2.
Write a note on Dominant Caste.
Answer:
The concept of dominant caste was given by M.N. Srinivas. He used this term first time in one of his essays, “Essay on the Social System of a Mysore village”. Srinivas created this concept when he was doing study in Rampur village near Mysore city of Karnataka. According to Srinivas, dominant caste is that caste of a village which has:

• Availability of lot of arable land at local level.
• More population.
• Higher status in local hierarchy.

Except these factors, few more new factors are coming forward such as:

• Western education .
• Jobs in administratio
• Urban means of earning.

Srinivas was of the view that the dominant caste was not confined only in Rampur village. It exists in other villages of the country as well. Traditionally, those castes whose population is less, have more money, arable land, political power etc. become dominant castes; in villages. According to him, traditionally upper castes are dominant as western education and other related facilities are easily available to them. During earlier times, there was no importance of caste population but with the advent of universal adult suffrage, many castes have become dominant in their areas.

Srinivas was of the view that many new bases of dominant caste are coming forward but the traditional basis still prevails and castes with more population have not yet become dominant castes. But the given bases of dominant caste are more than enough.

Question 3.
What do you understand by cultural change? Explain two cultural processes of change.
Answer:
Society strives its continuity and existence according to the environmental and conditions of its surrounding people have been descending down from generation to generation with the addition of new ideas and objects. The dynamic process of society enhances culture with refreshment and for every generation a new culture than for the previous. A stagnant society is dead but there is none today how so primitive it may be. Technological developments and social changes in the form of evolution and progress at any rate exist there as the adjustment factors change them according to the environmental conditions. Hence the societies and cultures are undergoing changes which are known as cultural change.

According to Horton and Hunt, “Change in the culture of society is called cultural change.” According to Kingsley Davis, “Cultural change embarrasses occurring in any branch of culture including art, science, technology, philosophy etc. as well as changes in the forms and rules of social organization. It is the modification or discontinuance of existing tried and tested procedures transmitted to us from the culture of the past, as well as the introduction of new procedures.

Two cultural processes:

• Westernization. See Question No. 1.
• Sanskritization. See’Question No. 5.

Question 4.
What do you understand by westernization? Explain its impact on Indian society.
Or
Highlight the impacts of Westernisation.
Answer:
Meaning of Westernization. See Question No. 1.
Impact of Westernization on Indian Society. Westernization has greatly affected our Indian society. None of the corners of our country remained away from the impact of this process. So the impact of westernization over Indian society is given below:

1. Impact on Family. Traditionally joint families exist in our country in which three to four generations live with each other. But westernization encouraged individualism and materialism in our country. It reduced community feeling and sense of sacrifice among the members of the family. Educated youth became conscious about their rights. They started to disobey their elders. Females became conscious to maintain their identity. Joint families started to disintegrate very quickly due to this consciousness among females and youngs. Nuclear families started to replace joint families. In this way structural and functional impacts of westernization were exerted upon family system. Relations, rights and duties of members of the family were also changed.

2. Impact on Marriage. Indian marriage system also came under the influence of westernization. Before the British, many traditional customs prevailed in Indian society like marriage within the caste, restriction on widow remarriage, child marriage, Hypergamy etc. Marriage was considered as a religious sacrament. Rules of Spinda, Gotra and Sparvara were obeyed by the people in marriage and there was no place of thing named divorce. But many changes came in the institution of marriage due to western culture, ideas, views etc. Child marriages were legally stopped, late marriages were started, widow remarriages were started, love marriages and court marriages were started, divorces were increased and polygamy was stopped. Monogamy became ide’al type of marriage. Marriage became a contract due to westernization.

3. Impact on Caste System. Caste system was one of the important bases of Indian society but it. has also been changed due to westernization. The British established large scale industries in India and developed means of transport and communication. With this they made Indians familiar with facilities like post, telegraph, newspapers, press, roads, planes, railways etc. Large scale industries were established and people of different castes started-to work with each other in these industries. They started to use means of transport to move from one place to another. This thing reduced the sense of superiority and inferiority. People of one caste started to adopt occupations of other castes. Money system was started for providing services and people started to take services of other castes. Restrictions of caste system were reduced when they started to work with each other. Impact of caste organisations was reduced. Westernization spread the values of equality and brotherhood. It reduced the discrimination on the basis of caste.

4. Impact on Untouchability. Untouchability was an indispensible part of Indian caste system. But caste discriminations were reduced due to spread of western values of equality, liberty and fraternity. Untouchability was reduced due to a number of reasons like permission to take admission in educational institutions, same educational system for every one, same job for similar capable persons etc. Britishers encouraged industrialization and urbanization. People of different castes started to use all the public places. So untouchability was reduced due to westernization.

5. Impact on Religious Life. Many religious beliefs, superstitions prevailed in Indian society before the advent of the British. But many religious and reform movements were started in India due to the impact of western education and Christian missionaries. That’s why many religious evils and superstitions came to an end. Many people changed their religion and became Christians.” Elements of equalitarianism and humanism were encouraged in Hindu religion. So many evils came to an end due to western impact. With this religious beliefs and impact were also decreased. Fundamentalism of Hindu religion was declined and Indianization of Christianity took place.

6. Change in Status of Women. The status of women was very low when Britishers came to India. Their status was very pitiable due to sati system, purdah system, child marriage, restriction on widow remarriage etc. The British declared sati system illegal and gave permission to widow remarriage. Purdah system also declined due to spread of western education. Westernized women started to wear pent-shirts. Lakhs of women became conscious about their rights and they started to work in offices by leaving their traditional work of taking care of the house.

7. Impact in the Field of Education. We can clearly see the impact of westernization on traditional educational system of India. Gurukul system of education prevailed in Indian society before the advent of the British. But they started western system of education over here. People with knowledge of English language were given preferences in governmental jobs and administrative system. All castes and classes were equally treated. Lord Macaulay started education in English medium over here in 1835. This education brought drastic changes in views, ideas and living style of IndiAnswer: Western education also developed the sense of equality and national unity. Modern education of agriculture, science, medicine, engineering, law etc. is the legacy of the British.

8. Impact on Social Norms and Values. Folk ways, mores, traditions, customs, rules, laws, ways of behaviour, beliefs, values, arts, literature etc. are cultural heritage of Indian society. But many changes came in these cultural elements when Indians came in direct contact with the British and when the British rule established over here. These cultural elements came under the impact of westernization. After that many customs of Indian society were given legal form and many customs were restricted and started. For example sati system was restricted and widow remarriages were started. Even people started to print invitation cards for many occasions of life instead of calling their relatives personally. For example invitation cards of marriages, birth of child, birthdays, anniversaries, etc.

9. Impact on Life Style of the People. Indian life style is very much influenced by westernization. We can see even people of all the castes speaking English in metropolitan cities. In earlier times males used to wear ‘Dhoti Kurta’. But now they wear coat, pants, shirt, tie, jeans etc. Western fashion has completely changed life style of India. Now women wear jeans, pants, sarees, skirts, suits etc. Educated people often follow western culture in every sphere of life. Females are using make up kits to look beautiful. Now things of pleasure like TV, Car, Scooter, DVD, Camera, Mobile etc. are just like necessities of life. People are following everything of western culture in their lives.

10. Impact on Languages. In 1835, Lord Macaulay started English as a medium of education. After this people started to use English language. Yet English language is not a sanctioned language by the Indian Constitution but it has been adopted as a link language. In modern times, most of the schools, colleges, universities, medical colleges, Engineering colleges, management colleges and other professional colleges are using English language as a medium of instruction. Modern democracy, Parliamentary system, modern bureaucracy and the fundamental rights given to citizens are the legacy of English language.

11. Introduction of New Technology. The British used new technology in India. When developed technology was used in India then many changes came in Indian economy and living style of the people. They developed railways, made new roads, developed and encouraged press, made utensils of steel. Many revolutionary changes came in Indian society due to buses, railways, ships, post and telegraph, printing press. People started to eat their food by sitting on dinning tables instead of sitting on the floor and they started to use utensils of steel.

12. Industrialization. When the British established their rule over India, they started to export Indian raw material to England. They started to make things in England and sell those things in India. Things made by machines of high technology were less expensive and of good quality. But Indian made goods were more expensive and were not of good quality because they were made with hands. That’s why Indian industries suffered a gi;eat setback. The British started Zamindari system and their rules of business with which Indian economy weakened to a great extent. Things in these industries were made by machines. Things were made more than the local needs which resulted in the development of International business. But the Indian wealth started to flow towards Britain.

13. Development of New Administrative System. Modern Bureaucracy was introduced in India during British rule. Thousands of new posts were created. Indian Civil Services were started in which higher officials ye re started to be selected through competitive exams. Large structure of bureaucracy wqs introduced.

14. Development of Economic Institutions. Many economic institutions were developed in India during the British rule. Banks were established. Division of labour and specialization were developed. Capitalism was started in India. Problems of agricultural labour and industrial labour were increased. Strikes, lock outs of factories were started. Indian economy was turned towards a new direction with the advent of these economic institutions,

Question 5.
Write a note on Sanskritisation.
Or
What is Sanskritisation?
Or
Write a note on Sanskritisation?
Answer:
Famous Indian Sociologist M.N. Srinivas wrote a book called ‘Social Change in Modern India’ in which he elaborately explained the processes of social change. First of all he explained the process of Sanskritisation in which he said that, through this process, lower castes try to lift themselves up in the social hierarchy. In this book, he also wrote about changes which are coming among lower castes. Actually Srinivas used the word Sanskritisation to explain the process of mobility in traditional Indian social structure. He was of the view that only because of Sanskritisation, mobility started in caste system. According to him mobility was always possible in caste system and especially amo±.g lower and middle castes. Caste system was not so rigid to permanently fix the social status of a person. It could have been changed.

Meaning of Sanskritisation. First of all the word Sanskritisation was used by M.N. Srinivas in his book ‘Society Among the Coorgs’. He wrote this book after studying Coorgs of Mysore. He wrote that lower caste people have started to adopt the life style of upper castes to uplift their social status. Initially Srinivas used the word ‘Brahmanization’ for this process but later on he used the word Sanskritization. Srinivas was of the view that lower caste people have begun using life style of upper castes, with which social status of their children automatically goes upward after one or two generations. It means that when lower caste people start to adopt living style of higher castes then this process is known as the process of Sanskritization. Their status automatically goes upward with this process. In this process, first of all they used to leave their own customs, traditions, values and then they began to adopt the customs, values etc. of higher castes.

Definitions:

1. According to M.N. Srinivas, “Sanskritization is the process by which a low Hindu caste or tribaj or other group changes its customs, ideology and way of life in the direction of a higher and twice born caste.”

2. At another place Srinivas wrote, “Sanskritization means not only the adoption of new customs and habits, but also exposure to new ideas and values which have frequent express in the nest body of Sanskrit literature sacred as well as secular, Karma, dharma, pap, maya, sansar, moksha are examples of some of the most common Sanskrit theological ideas and when a person becomes Sanskritized, these words are used frequently.”

3. According to Dr. Yogendra Singh, “Sanskritization is the process of cultural and social mobility during these periods of relative closure of the Hindu social system. It is an endogamous source of social change. From a psychological point Sanskritization is the culture of higher group. The specific sense of Sanskritization is a unique historical expression of the general process of acculturation as a means of vertical mobility of groups.”

In this way Srinivas was of the view that it is right that people of lower caste adopted the living styles of upper castes but it doesn’t mean that it has changed the caste hierarchy. Yet they started to adopt life style of upper castes and even kept the subnames of higher castes but they could not become the upper castes. Srinivas was of the view that Sanskritization was not confined only among lower Hindu castes but it also took place among the tribes. Bhils, Gonds, Oraons tribes have also tried to adopt this process.

In this way the process of Sanskritization remains in caste system and through this process, people of lower castes try to adopt and imitate the life style, habits, ways of living of higher castes. After one or two generations they become mixed among the people of upper castes. So through this process, people of lower castes try to uplift their social status.

Question 6.
What do you understand by Sanskritisation? Explain its impact.
Or
Give Sanskritisation’s impact on Society.
Or
Explain impact of Sanskritisation.
Answer:
The process of Sanskritization has greatly affected the caste system of the Indian society. This process has reduced the impact of caste system and lower castes tried to uplift their social status with this process. Sanskritization has greatly affected lower castes because of which many changes came in their status and this description is given below:

1. The process of Sanskritisation has increased mobility among lower castes. Census report of 1921 says that many people of North India put sacred thread and started to call themselves Kshatriyas.

2. This process improved the status of lower castes. People of lower castes adopted the traditions, rituals, ideals and life style of higher castes and started to call themselves as members of higher castes. When they were able to achieve wanted place in local caste hierarchy then their position changes automatically.

3. This process has brought changes in occupation status of lower castes. They started to leave those occupations which were considered as impure and started to adopt pure occupations. Yet they were not allowed to adopt pure occupations but due to increasing consciousness towards purity they started to adopt occupations of upper castes.

4. The process of Sanskritization also brought many changes in their culture – folk ways, traditions, customs, beliefs, values, behaviour and mannerism. They started to imitate life style of upper castes with which their life style also changed.

5. Sanskritization has also affected religious life of lower castes. They started to adopt religious rituals of upper castes. Even they started to do yajans, puja etc. They left the impure occupations and adopted pure occupations. They started to celebrate even Hindu festivals as well.

6. Their economic status was also affected by this. They entered the industrial sector and government jobs with which their income was improved. They started to get technical and occupational education and started to achieve higher posts. Their income increased with modern occupations with which their economic status was improved.

7. Social life of lower castes also changed with this. Members of lower castes started to get education to improve their status. They got jobs in industries, offices, administration etc. They started to interact with people of upper castes which resulted in reduction of caste differences.

8. Their ways of living also changed with improvement of economic status, education, use of means of transport, jobs etc. They started to make concrete houses. Even they started to use means of leisure like furniture, chairs, table, TV, Fridge, Fans, Kitchen Gas, A.C. etc.