Class 12

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 7 Westernisation and Sanskritisation Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 7 Westernisation and Sanskritisation

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The process in which lower caste people start to imitate upper caste people is known as
(a) Westernization
(b) Sanskritization
(c) Secularization
(d) Modernization
Answer:
(b) Sanskritization

2. The change which comes in society or culture of any country is known as …………….
(a) social change
(b) religious change
(c) cultural change
(d) evolutionary change
Answer:
(c) cultural change

3. Which of these books was written by M.N. Srinivas?
(a) Cultural change in India
(b) Social change in Modern India
(c) Geographical change in Modern India
(d) Regional change in Modern India
Answer:
(b) Social change in Modern India

4. Who gave the concept of westernisation?
(a) Srinivas
(b) Majumdar
(c) Ghurye
(d) Mukherjee
Answer:
(a) Srinivas

5. What was the impact of westernization on our country?
(a) Weakening of caste system
(b) Increase in number of divorces
(c) Advent of nuclear families
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

6. What is required to be a dominant caste?
(a) More population
(b) More arable land
(c) Higher status in caste hierarchy
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

Fill in the Blanks:

1. …………….. gave the concept of westernization.
Answer:
Srinivas

2. In westernization …………….. is known as a model.
Answer:
British

3. …………… and ……………. brought many changes in Indian society.
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Rabindra Nath Tagore

4. First three castes had to go through ……………. samskara.
Answer:
Upanayan

5. Srinivas used the sanskritization instead of using …………………
Answer:
Brahminization

6. Srinivas studied the ……………. people.
Answer:
Coorg

True/False:

1. Srinivas was the student of Ghurye.
Answer:
True

2. Educated Indians were the carriers of westernisation.
Answer:
True

3. Westernisation brought many changes in Indian society.
Answer:
True

4. In Sanskritisation, living style of upper castes is adopted.
Answer:
True

5. To be a dominant caste, more arable land is required.
Answer:
True

6. Srinivas studied the Coorgs of south India.
Answer:
True

One Word/One Line Questions Answers:

Question 1.
Who gave the concept of Sanskritization?
Answer:
M. N. Srinivas.

Question 2.
Who gave the concept of Westernization?
Answer:
M. N. Srinivas.

Question 3.
Give any two, helping factors of Sanskritization.
Answer:
Industrialisation and Modernization.

Question 4.
In which book did Srinivas explain Sanskritization?
Answer:
Social change in Modern India.

Question 5.
What is cultural change?
Answer:
When change comes in culture or society of any country, it is called cultural change.

Question 6.
What is meant by Westernisation?
Answer:
When, in our country, western living style, habits etc. are adopted it is known as Westernisation.

Question 7.
What is Sanskritisation?
Answer:
When people of lower castes imitate upper castes and uplift their status by imitating them, it is called sanskritisation.

Question 8.
Which country, in Westernisation, is considered a role model?
Answer:
In Westernisation, England is considered a role model.

Question 9.
Which social reformers brought many changes in Indian society?
Answer:
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayanand Saraswati, Jyoti ba Phuley, Vivekananda etc.

Question 10.
What is Gurukul?
Answer:
During ancient times, children were taught in Gurukuls.

Question 11.
Which castes are known as ‘DWIJA’?
Answer:
Upper three castes-Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya.

Question 12.
Where do Coorgs live?
Answer:
Coorgs live near Mysore (Karnataka).

Question 13.
Lower castes of Mysore adopted the life style of which caste?
Answer:
Lower castes of Mysore adopted the life style of Lingayat community.

Question 14.
While analysing which village, does Srinivas use the word ‘dominant caste’?
Answer:
Rampur village situated near Mysore (Karnataka).

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is meant by Sanskritization?
Answer:
When lower caste people start imitating upper caste people and try to adopt their living style, habits etc. to uplift their social status, this process is known as sanskritization. It only changes social status but not the caste.

Question 2.
Give any two features of Sanskritization.
Answer:

• In sanskritization, lower caste people adopt the living style of upper caste people. So, imitation is a necessary element in this process.
• The process of sanskritization is a continuous process in which change comes in social status of lower castfefe.

Question 3.
What is Westernisation?
Answer:
Srinivas says, “I have used the term westernization to characterise the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes occuring at different levels, technology, institutions, ideology and values.

Question 4.
What was the impact of Westernisation on Indian society?
Answer:

• Westernisation broke the clutches of caste system and it weakened.
• Due to Westernisation, women started getting education, came out of their houses and started doing jobs.
• Marriages started breaking down and number of divorces increased.

Question 5.
What is Dominant caste?
Answer:
According to Srinivas, dominant caste is that caste in village which has lot of arable land at village level, more population and higher status in local hierarchy. Presently few more attributes are attached with it such as western education, jobs in administration etc.

Question 6.
What is upanayan samskara?
Answer: Children of first three castes had to wear a sacred thread which was known as upanayan. After completition of this samskara, they moved to gurukul to take education. It was one important Samskara of Hinduism and lower castes were not allowed in this ceremony.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Sanskritization.
Answer:
The word Sanskritization was used by Indian sociologist M.N. Srinivas to explain the process of social mobility in traditional Indian society. This is a process in which lower castes collectively adopt the customs, traditions and ways of life of upper caste people. Through this process, lower caste people even sacrifice their actual traditions, customs etc.

Question 2.
Characteristics of Sanskritization.
Answer:

• Universal Process. Whole of the Indian society was affected by this. It means that it was not limited only to Hindu castes but its influence was also seen among Sikhs, Jains and Muslims.
• Group Mobility. This process affects whole of the group. Every lower caste group wants to lift itself upwards in society.
• Positional Change. In Sanskritization, positional change takes place but not the structural change. It means that caste hierarchy remains as it is.
• Imitation. Imitation is a necessary element of this process because lower caste people try to follow or imitate the living style of upper castes.

Question 3.
Any two sources of Sanskritization.
Answer:

• Impact of Western Education. First of all the upper castes were affected by the western education as they were first to take this education. Later on other castes also joined this race of western education.
• Impact of Urbanization. Industrial development led to development of urbanization. Restrictions of caste system came to an end with which personal change also took place. In urban conditions, it was very easy for lower castes to hide their actual caste and to adopt the new caste.

Question 4.
Any definition of westernization.
Or
Westernization.
Answer:
According to M.N. Srinivas, “I have used the term westernization to characterise the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels, technology, institutions, ideology and values.”

Question 5.
How has westernization affected our society?
Answer:

• Caste System has weakened due to westernization.
• Separation in marriages and number of divorces increased due to westernization.
• Females came out of four walls of house to work in offices.
• Joint families started to change into Nuclear families.

Question 6.
What are the results of westernization?
Answer:

• Change in Institutions. Many changes came in institutions of our society due to westernization. Strictness of marriage, family, caste system, religion no more pravails in modern society.
• Change in Values. Values of society are also changing due to this. Every one came to know about right of equality after getting education. Individualism and formal relations are increasing day by day.
• Change in importance of religion. The importance of religion has also been decreased due to this. In earlier times people were afraid of religion but now they use only that much of religion which is required.
• Spread of education. Education in our country is spreading day by day. Literacy rate of our country is 74% and it is increasing day by day.

Question 7.
Define Sanskritization
Answer:
According to M.N. Srinivas, “Sanskritization means not only the adoption of new customs and habits but also exposure to new ideas and values which have frequent expression in the vast body of Sanskrit literature, sacred as well as secular. Karma, dharma, pap, maya, sansar, moksha are examples of some of the most common Sanskrit theological ideas and when people become Sanskritized these words are used frequently.

Question 8.
Explain the meaning of Westernization.
Answer:
According to M.N. Srinivas, “I have used the term westernization to characterize the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels, technology, institutions, ideology and values.” So from this it is clear that concept of westernization includes the changes which came in institutions, ideology etc. of Indian society and which came due to political and cultural contact with western countries.

Question 9.
Give differences between Sanskritization and Westernization.
Answer:

Sanskritization	Westernization
Many restrictionsare being kept on eating habits in this.	No such restrictions are being kept in this process.
Process of Sanskritization is internal and purely Indian.	Process of westernization is external and foreigner.
This process is going on from the ages.	This process started when Britishers came to India.
Sanskritized caste gets higher status with mobility.	There is no change in status of caste in westernization.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What are the features of Sanskritisation?
Answer:
1. Sanskritization is a Universal Process. The process of Sanskritization was not only related with one caste or even caste system but this process exerted impact on whole of Indian society. This process existed in every part of the country and was an important process of Indian history. It is quite possible that it might have dominance in one age and not in another age but Sanskritization definitely took place. But without doubt we can say that this process is a universal process. This process exists even among tribes and sub tribes. Generally tribes live away from main stream and Hindu society and they are given even lower status than of lower castes. But tribals consider themselves superior than the Hindus. Some tribes have adopted the living style, eating habits, customs etc. of those Hindus which live nearby their areas. In this way not only middle and lower castes but tribal people are also adopting this process.

2. Positional change does happen in it but not the structural change. In Sanskritization, the people of lower castes adopt the living style of higher castes and change comes in their status. Their position changes within their own caste but it hardly changes the structure of caste system. Hierarchy of castes never changes but it remains as it is. In other words, we can say that in this process, people of lower caste can adopt the customs and living styles of their ideal caste but cannot become members of their ideal caste. It is so because caste is based on birth. One can adopt the living style of Brahmana but cannot become a Brahmana.

3. Imitation is a necessary element of Sanskritization. In the process, lower caste people observe the life of upper caste and then they try to follow that life style. In this Way imitation is a necessary element of Sanskritization. It means that lower caste people used to follow the ways of living, eating habits etc. of upper castes. This process even starts with imitation. It means lower caste people begin to imitate the customs of upper castes. Gradually, their status is uplifted in the society. In other words, change comes on caste basis and mobility is possible in caste system.

4. Sanskritization is a process of change in relative sense. In the process of Sanskritization, it has been observed that even upper caste people are imitating tribal people. This process has a local form as well. As compared to upper castes, many local differences have been found among cultures of Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and lower castes. In this way the Sanskritization of few subcastes of lower castes takes place according to local form.

5. Change in status of BrahmAnswer: This process not only brings change in status of lower castes but it also changes the status of upper castes. Brahmanas also started to change themselves according to . western culture. In ancient times, certain restrictions were there on upper castes like not to use meat and alcohol, not to use blade etc. But when they started to change themsglves according to western culture then their status also saw a number of changes.

6. Upward Mobility. In the process of Sanskritization, people of lower castes start to adopt the life style of upper castes. Gradually their social status moves upward and this is the main feature of Sanskritization. In this process, lower caste people or tribal people change themselves according to ideal caste’s ways of living. But even then, their status never reaches to the status of ideal caste. In this way this is an upward mobility.

7. Change in social status but not in caste. Social status of a person changes in this system but not the caste. It means that person can adopt the ways of living of other caste but cannot change his caste. Person has to remain in that caste, for whole of his life, in which he is born.

8. Sanskritization is a Group Mobility. The process of Sanskritization is not related with one person or a family but is related with a group of castes. Any tribe, lower caste or group tries to uplift its social status with the help of this process. Like any lower caste claims to be upper caste status and adopts the norms and values of upper caste. They even try to uplift their social status on the basis of their ideal caste.

9. Sanskritization is related with social mobility. Sanskritization is related to social mobility. Sanskritization gives birth to mobility. Mobility exists in almost all the societies i.e. in closed society like India and open society like America. As a result, sometimes person claims to achieve higher status as compared to his present status. They belong actually to other caste and write the name of other caste.

Question 2.
Explain the different sources of Sanskritization.
Answer:
According to M.N. Srinivas, there are certain sources of Sanskritization which are given below:

1. Development of means of Communication and Transport. Industrialisation started in India which led to the development of means of transport and communication. That’s why industries started to develop in different parts of the country. Development of industries led to the development of means of transport with which it became easy for people to move from one place to another. People came in contact with members of other castes and they began to travel with each other. In this way, mutual exchange started among different castes. This process led to emergence of process of assimilation. As people travelled with each other, it became very difficult to maintain caste system’s concept of purity and impurity.

In this way the process of Sanskritization was greatly affected by the development of means of transport. This process spread in whole of the country with means of transport. Now we never ask any shopkeeper as to which caste he belongs. With means of transport, people came out of their houses and began to make contacts with people of distant places. In this way these means played a very important role in spreading this process.

2. Urbanization. After 1947, industries developed very quickly in India because of which many cities Came into existence. People of different castes, religion, colour etc. live in cities and cities have more population. People living in urban area are hardly aware of the fact that who is their neighbour and to which caste he belongs. Under these circumstances, lower castes took maximum advantage. When they migrated to urban areas from rural areas then they started to claim themselves as of higher caste. They even adopted life style of upper caste people. Class system is of great importance in cities and person is respected not because of his caste but because of his social status. In this way the process of Sanskritization is very much influenced by the process of urbanisation.

3. Socio-religious Movements. Caste system was one of the important bases of Indian society. It was so strict that no one was allowed to go against the caste system. If any one was trying to do so then he was generally thrown out of the caste. Lower caste people were not allowed to uplift their social status as they were kept at lowest level of social hierarchy. Many socio-religious movements started against this system and it was opposed by many social reformers. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Jytoiba Phooley etc. started many reform movements. All these movements wanted to weaken the caste system.

They tried a lot to uplift the lower caste people and women. Mahatma Gandhi tried a lot to uplift the lower caste people and to eradicate untouchability from the society. He even gave the name of ‘Harijan’ to lower Castes. Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj greatly opposed the caste system and discrimination on the basis of caste. They also tried to remove superiority of upper castes. These social reformers tried to awaken the people. Inter-caste marriages began to take place due to these movements. In this way caste system was weakened and process of Sanskritization was encouraged.

4. Western Education. Before the arrival of the British, Indian educational system was based on religion. But when British arrived in India, they first of all tried tostart their own educational system over here. They treated every one on equal terms. They opened many schools, colleges and arranged education for all the castes. Before them, religious education was given to pupils. But they started to provide western education which was based on science and reasoning. Before Britishers, women were not allowed to take education. But Britishers opened many schools and colleges for girls. Many schools were co-educational schools where both boys and girls used to take education with each other. In this way western education removed the caste discrimination. The process of Sanskritization was encouraged by this and transformation came in ancient Indian social values.

5. Different Occupations. One of the important features of caste system was that one had to adopt the occupation of his caste. His occupation was not based on his wish but was based on his caste. He was not allowed to change his occupation. But large industries were established over here after the arrival of the British. Production came out of the houses and went over to factories. It led to emergence of capitalist system and many new occupations were emerged. Division of labour and specialisation is generally given importance in factories. Now every one likes to adopt occupation of his choice. Person can take education of his choice and can adopt occupation according to his education. A number of new occupations came into being in society. This emergence of new occupations led to weakening up of caste system’s restriction of occupation and the process of Sanskritization was encouraged.

6. New Economic System. The British government played a very important role in transforming Indian society. Before the British, person was restricted to adopt his caste’s occupation. One was allowed to adopt the occupation of that caste in which he was born. But many new industries were established with the arrival of the British. Production began to take place on a large scale. The process of production at home came to an end with which people were forced to come out of their houses to adopt another occupation.

It led to increase in importance of money. Now person wants to earn more money and he adopts that occupation which gives him more money. These days person gets social status on the basis of his wealth. In this way status of person is confined to his wealth. Wealthy person gets more status and respect in the society. An individual now gets more opportunities to earn money. A number of changes came in his living style. In this new economic system, things like untouchability are of no importance. Difference of higher or lower class remains no more in society. New economic system gave stress to the process of Sanskritization and its influence increased in society.

7. New Legal System. When the British arrived in India, they started a new legal system over here and began to treat equally all IndiAnswer: In ancient times, different types of punishments were given for same type of committed crime. This system was changed by the British. This system completely came to end after 1947. New Constitution of India was implemented which gave encouragement to process of Sanskritization. Government tried to uplift the lower castes. They were given reservations in educational institutions and government jobs.

A number of laws were made with which the caste system was greatly affected. In 1955 ‘Untouchability Offence Act’ was passed and untouchability was declared illegal. In 1954 ‘Special Marriage Act’ was passed which gave legal sanction to inter-caste marriage. This Act also tried to eradicate the system of endogamy. In 1937, ‘Arya Marriage Validation Act’ was passed which gave permission to Arya Samajis to marry with each other. Our Constitution has prohibited every one from discriminating others on the basis of caste, colour, creed, age, birth etc. Lower caste people were given a number of facilities. In this way new legal system very much influenced the process of Sanskritisation.

8. Political Effect. After independence, new democratic values were developed in the country. That’s why every citizen of country received a number of political rights. Lower caste people received many opportunities to uplift their social status. People were politically motivated to remove caste based discrimination. Many political parties were formed to gain independence and people of all the castes jointly participated in freedom struggle. People collectively went to jails and lived with each other. These circumstances led to the weakening of caste based discriminations.

Now lower caste people have more importance from political point of view. As they are more in number, that’s why their political importance has been increased. Even few seats are reserved for them in Parliament. In this way, it became very easy for lower caste people to adopt living style of upper castes and the process of Sanskritization increased a lot.

9. Modern Education. In ancient times, religion based education was given to pupils. When the British arrived in India, they gave stress on western education and that’s why many schools, colleges were opened. After independence, even our Constitution says that instead of religious education, secular education must be given. The basic principle of new education is that all humans are equal. Only education can break the clutches of caste system. With education, person can gradually change his caste. Only after getting education, person can improve his caste and status in society. In this way modern education is also a source of Sanskritization.

10. Passion for Money. These days, humans have a lot of passion for money and they have become materialistic. Now every one likes to run behind money. When person becomes wealthy then he wants to uplift his social status and living style. He first of all changes his life style and then he even changes his caste. Gradually, he comes to be known by his changed caste. In this way the process of Sanskritization is also encouraged by the increased importance of wealth.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 7 Westernisation and Sanskritisation Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 7 Westernisation and Sanskritisation

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Westernisation and Sanskritisation Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Change in the beliefs is a:
(a) Structural change
(b) Cultural change
(c) Both
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Both

2. Which of these is a cultural process of change?
Or
Which of these is a change process of Culture?
(a) Westernisation
(b) Sanskritization
(c) Both
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Both

3. The process by which those who occupy traditional low positions attempt to gain a higher position in the <caste hierarchy is called as:
(a) Westernisation
(b) Sanskritisatiori
(c) Modernisation
(d) Globalisation
Answer:
(b) Sanskritisation

4. Who have given the statement, “The changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rules, and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels-technology, institutions, ideology, values.”
(a) Yogendra Singh
(b) M.N. Srinivas
(c) K.L. Sharma
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) M.N. Srinivas

5. The development of westernization is traced from which period:
(a) Vedic period
(b) Post Vedic period
(c) Mughal period
(d) British period
Answer:
(d) British period

Fill in the Blanks:

1. British and Indians were considered the carriers of ……………….. process.
Answer:
westernization

2. ……………….. means concern for the welfare of all irrespective of caste, religion, economic status, age, and sex.
Answer:
Reform movement

3. For the caste to be dominant, it should have ………………., ………………… and ………………
Answer:
more land, more population, higher status

4. …………………. alone are not the object of imitation.
Answer:
Brahmins

True/False:

1. The form and pace of westernisation of India remains same from region to region and from one section of population to another.
Answer:
False

2. Structural change occurs with the process of Sanskritisation.
Answer:
True

3. Sanskritisation is the process where vertical mobility takes place in which one moves in downward direction.
Answer:
False

4. For a caste to be dominant it should own a sizeable amount of the arable land locally available.
Answer:
True

Match The Columns:

Column A	Column B
Hierarchy	Reference Group
Upper Caste	Positional change
Sanskritisation	Ranking of status
Westernisation	Welfare of all
Humanitarianism	Value preference

Answer:

Column A	Column B
Hierarchy	Ranking of status
Upper Caste	Reference Group
Sanskritisation	Positional change
Westernisation	Value preference
Humanitarianism	Welfare of all

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is the process called by which one gains higher position in the caste hierarchy?
Answer:
It is known as Sanskritization.

Question 2.
Name one process by which cultural change occurs.
Answer:
Westernization.

Question 3.
Which period can be considered as the indicator of initiation of westernisation?
Answer:
The British period.

Question 4.
By which process upward mobility takes place by the process of imitation?
Answer:
Sanskritization.

Question 5.
Which cultural process works outside the framework of caste?
Answer:
Brahminization.

Question 8.
From which period the origin of westernisation can be traced?
Answer:
The British period.

Question 7.
Who are considered to be the carriers of westernisation process?
Answer:
Soldiers, those people who were at higher posts, traders and owners of plantations, Christian missionaries etc.

Question 8.
Who has used the term Sanskritisation instead of Brahminisation?
Answer:
M.N. Srinivas.

Question 9.
Name any two groups among the British who helped to spread westernization.
Answer:
Educated Indians, social reformers, Christian missionaries, etc.

Question 10.
Name any one criterion to identify the dominant caste by M.N.Srinivas.
Answer:
More population, more holding of arable land etc.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is meant by Westernisation?
Or
Westernization.
Answer:
M.N. Srinivas used the word westernisation for the changes which came in Indian society during the British rule. According to him, under the impact of Western culture, ways of living, eating, wearing etc. many changes came in Indian society.

Question 2.
Does westernisation lead to social reforms?
Answer:
Yes, westernisation led to social reforms because after getting western education, many Indian social reformers started doing reforms in Indian society. Consequently many social evils were removed such as Sati system, no widow remarriage etc.

Question 3.
What is meant by Sanskritisation?
Or
Sanskritisation.
Answer:
Sanskritisation is a process in which members of lower caste collectively adopt the traditions, customs, ways of living life etc. of upper caste people. Consequently, after one or two generations, their social status automatically moves in upward direction.

Question 4.
What do you understand by humanitarianism?
Answer:
The meaning of humanitarianism is welfare of all irrespective of their caste, age, gender, religion, economic status etc. During the first half of 19th century, humanitarianism became one of the bases of many reforms brought by the British.

Question 5.
Mention various levels at which changes occurred due to westernisation.
Answer:
The process of westernisation brought many changes such as the caste based differences were reduced, people started getting education, changes came in the people’s ways of living and eating, higher status of women, changes in social institutions etc.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What are the various pre-requisites for the process of Sanskritisation?
Answer:

• There is positional change in the process of sanskritisation but there is no structural change. Social structure remains the same.
• Imitation is a necessary element in sanskritisation. It means whatever people observe about their ideal caste, they start doing the same thing.
• There is upward mobility in Sanskritisation because when people adopt living style of upper caste after one or two generations their position also changes in society.
• In the process of sanskritisation, social status of an individual changes but it doesn’t mean that his caste will also change. It remains the same.

Question 2.
Explain the process of Sanskritisation.
Answer:
M.N. Srinivas, an Indian sociologist, gave the concept of sanskritisation. He used this word to explain the process of social mobility in traditional social structure. This is the process in which a lower caste, collectively adopts the customs, traditions, living style etc. to achieve higher status in society. With this process, lower caste persons even sacrifice their traditional customs and traditions.

Question 3.
Why is Sanskritization preferred to the term Brahminisation?
Answer:
M.N. Srinivas preferred the word Sanskritization over Brahminisation and there was a reason behind it. Actually in Brahminisation, lower caste people adopt the ways of living, customs, traditions etc. of Brahmins. But this is not the case in sanskritization. In sanskritization, lower castes adopt ways of living of the upper caste living in their area. It can be any of the three upper castes i.e. Brahmin, Kshatriya or Vaishya. In this the model caste can be any of the upper three castes. . So, Sanskritisation is an open and wide concept but Brahminisation is a small ‘ concept.

Question 4.
Give details on the carriers of westernisation process.
Answer:
Along with the British, Indians are also considered carriers of westernization. There were three British groups which helped in the expansion of this process and these were

• Sepoys and those officers who were at higher posts
• Traders and plantation owners
• Christian missionaries. Except these, there were those Indians who were directly or indirectly in contact with the British.

They were:

• Those Indians came in direct contact with the British living style. They either worked at the homes of the British or those who left Hinduism and adopted Christianity.
• Those Indians were indirectly related to the British. They were those who took western education, started doing government jobs, or started trading.

Question 5.
Sanskritisation results only in positional change in the system and does not lead to any structural change. Discuss.
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that sanskritisation results only in positional change in the system but not the structural change. In this process, social status of 1 an individual changes but not the caste. It means that one can adopt the living style of his model caste but he cannot be included in that caste. One needs to live whole of his life in the caste in which he is born. Any tribal person can adopt life style of any caste but he cannot be a member of that caste.

Question 6.
Bring out differences between westernisation and sanskritisation.
Answer:

• The process of westernisation is a secular process but in sanskritisation aspect of purity and impurity is quite important.
• There is development and upward mobility in westernization but there is imitation and upward mobility in sanskritization.
• The process of westernization works out of caste based structure but the process of sanskritization works within caste based structure.
• With westernisation, change comes in the status of whole society but in sanskritisation social status of an individual changes.

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Write note on westernisation and its features.
Or
Discuss the features of westernisation in detail.
Or
Write a note on westernisation.
Or
What is westernisation? Discuss its features.
Answer:
Generally the meaning of westernization’Is taken by impact of western countries over India. England, France, Germany and’U.S.A. are those western countries which greatly influenced Indian society. Educated class of India tries to imitate life style of the people of these countries. Prof. M.N. Srinivas gave a detailed description of westernization. Other Sociologists also tried to explain westernization but they mainly concentrated on giving explanation of impacts of westernization on Indian society. Srinivas wrote a book ‘Social Change in Modern India’ and in this book he wrote, “I have used the term westernization to characterize the changes brought about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels, technology, institutions, ideology and values.”

So from this definition it is clear that the concept of westernization includes the changes which come in institutions, ideology etc. of Indian society and which came due to political and cultural contacts with western countries. Westernization can have many ideals like England, U.S.A. or other European countries.

Features Of Westernization:

1. Continue after Independence. The process of westernization hardly came to an end even when Britishers left our country. This process continuously is going on even after independence. From Modern Indian Culture, ways of living, eating habits, new ways of mannerism, spread of western education etc. we can tell that India is westernizing even in today’s age.

2. Westernization is different from modernization. Yet the process of modernization is encouraged by westernization but these both concepts are different from each other. Wersternization is only related with all those good or bad effects over Indian society which were exerted due to British contacts but the process of Modernization includes positive impacts of western and other countries like England, Germany, France, Russia, U.S.A., Japan, China etc. over Indian society. Except this the impact of modern science and technology, information and science over Indian society is also known as modernization.

3. Impact of the British culture on Indian Society. Westernization is the impact of the British culture over Indian society. Yet India is also influenced by other western countries but the process of westernization does not include the impact of other western countries. To clarify this statement Srinivas has written that, “I have used the term westernization to characterize the changes brought about in Indian Society and Culture as a result of over 150 years of the British rule.”

4. Westernization is not confined to urbanites. Impact of westernization was not confined only to urban areas during British empire. But whoever came in their contact like rural farmers, smaller officials, military men etc. became westernized. It was spread even in rural areas as well.

5. Conscious and Unconscious process. The process of westernization is a conscious as well as Unconscious process. Some of the aspects of culture, like language, technology etc. were consciously adopted by the IndiAnswer: But many westernized ideas, values, eating habits, living habits were unconsciously adopted by the IndiAnswer: Eating by sitting on the dining table, saying good morning or good night etc. are some of its examples.

6. Ethically Neutral. Many good, bad, positive, negative, organizational, disorganizational changes came in Indian society through westernization. Westernization is not related with positive and negative aspects of change. All the changes which come under this concept mean ethically westernization is a neutral concept.

Question 2.
Write a note on Dominant Caste.
Answer:
The concept of dominant caste was given by M.N. Srinivas. He used this term first time in one of his essays, “Essay on the Social System of a Mysore village”. Srinivas created this concept when he was doing study in Rampur village near Mysore city of Karnataka. According to Srinivas, dominant caste is that caste of a village which has:

• Availability of lot of arable land at local level.
• More population.
• Higher status in local hierarchy.

Except these factors, few more new factors are coming forward such as:

• Western education .
• Jobs in administratio
• Urban means of earning.

Srinivas was of the view that the dominant caste was not confined only in Rampur village. It exists in other villages of the country as well. Traditionally, those castes whose population is less, have more money, arable land, political power etc. become dominant castes; in villages. According to him, traditionally upper castes are dominant as western education and other related facilities are easily available to them. During earlier times, there was no importance of caste population but with the advent of universal adult suffrage, many castes have become dominant in their areas.

Srinivas was of the view that many new bases of dominant caste are coming forward but the traditional basis still prevails and castes with more population have not yet become dominant castes. But the given bases of dominant caste are more than enough.

Question 3.
What do you understand by cultural change? Explain two cultural processes of change.
Answer:
Society strives its continuity and existence according to the environmental and conditions of its surrounding people have been descending down from generation to generation with the addition of new ideas and objects. The dynamic process of society enhances culture with refreshment and for every generation a new culture than for the previous. A stagnant society is dead but there is none today how so primitive it may be. Technological developments and social changes in the form of evolution and progress at any rate exist there as the adjustment factors change them according to the environmental conditions. Hence the societies and cultures are undergoing changes which are known as cultural change.

According to Horton and Hunt, “Change in the culture of society is called cultural change.” According to Kingsley Davis, “Cultural change embarrasses occurring in any branch of culture including art, science, technology, philosophy etc. as well as changes in the forms and rules of social organization. It is the modification or discontinuance of existing tried and tested procedures transmitted to us from the culture of the past, as well as the introduction of new procedures.

Two cultural processes:

• Westernization. See Question No. 1.
• Sanskritization. See’Question No. 5.

Question 4.
What do you understand by westernization? Explain its impact on Indian society.
Or
Highlight the impacts of Westernisation.
Answer:
Meaning of Westernization. See Question No. 1.
Impact of Westernization on Indian Society. Westernization has greatly affected our Indian society. None of the corners of our country remained away from the impact of this process. So the impact of westernization over Indian society is given below:

1. Impact on Family. Traditionally joint families exist in our country in which three to four generations live with each other. But westernization encouraged individualism and materialism in our country. It reduced community feeling and sense of sacrifice among the members of the family. Educated youth became conscious about their rights. They started to disobey their elders. Females became conscious to maintain their identity. Joint families started to disintegrate very quickly due to this consciousness among females and youngs. Nuclear families started to replace joint families. In this way structural and functional impacts of westernization were exerted upon family system. Relations, rights and duties of members of the family were also changed.

2. Impact on Marriage. Indian marriage system also came under the influence of westernization. Before the British, many traditional customs prevailed in Indian society like marriage within the caste, restriction on widow remarriage, child marriage, Hypergamy etc. Marriage was considered as a religious sacrament. Rules of Spinda, Gotra and Sparvara were obeyed by the people in marriage and there was no place of thing named divorce. But many changes came in the institution of marriage due to western culture, ideas, views etc. Child marriages were legally stopped, late marriages were started, widow remarriages were started, love marriages and court marriages were started, divorces were increased and polygamy was stopped. Monogamy became ide’al type of marriage. Marriage became a contract due to westernization.

3. Impact on Caste System. Caste system was one of the important bases of Indian society but it. has also been changed due to westernization. The British established large scale industries in India and developed means of transport and communication. With this they made Indians familiar with facilities like post, telegraph, newspapers, press, roads, planes, railways etc. Large scale industries were established and people of different castes started-to work with each other in these industries. They started to use means of transport to move from one place to another. This thing reduced the sense of superiority and inferiority. People of one caste started to adopt occupations of other castes. Money system was started for providing services and people started to take services of other castes. Restrictions of caste system were reduced when they started to work with each other. Impact of caste organisations was reduced. Westernization spread the values of equality and brotherhood. It reduced the discrimination on the basis of caste.

4. Impact on Untouchability. Untouchability was an indispensible part of Indian caste system. But caste discriminations were reduced due to spread of western values of equality, liberty and fraternity. Untouchability was reduced due to a number of reasons like permission to take admission in educational institutions, same educational system for every one, same job for similar capable persons etc. Britishers encouraged industrialization and urbanization. People of different castes started to use all the public places. So untouchability was reduced due to westernization.

5. Impact on Religious Life. Many religious beliefs, superstitions prevailed in Indian society before the advent of the British. But many religious and reform movements were started in India due to the impact of western education and Christian missionaries. That’s why many religious evils and superstitions came to an end. Many people changed their religion and became Christians.” Elements of equalitarianism and humanism were encouraged in Hindu religion. So many evils came to an end due to western impact. With this religious beliefs and impact were also decreased. Fundamentalism of Hindu religion was declined and Indianization of Christianity took place.

6. Change in Status of Women. The status of women was very low when Britishers came to India. Their status was very pitiable due to sati system, purdah system, child marriage, restriction on widow remarriage etc. The British declared sati system illegal and gave permission to widow remarriage. Purdah system also declined due to spread of western education. Westernized women started to wear pent-shirts. Lakhs of women became conscious about their rights and they started to work in offices by leaving their traditional work of taking care of the house.

7. Impact in the Field of Education. We can clearly see the impact of westernization on traditional educational system of India. Gurukul system of education prevailed in Indian society before the advent of the British. But they started western system of education over here. People with knowledge of English language were given preferences in governmental jobs and administrative system. All castes and classes were equally treated. Lord Macaulay started education in English medium over here in 1835. This education brought drastic changes in views, ideas and living style of IndiAnswer: Western education also developed the sense of equality and national unity. Modern education of agriculture, science, medicine, engineering, law etc. is the legacy of the British.

8. Impact on Social Norms and Values. Folk ways, mores, traditions, customs, rules, laws, ways of behaviour, beliefs, values, arts, literature etc. are cultural heritage of Indian society. But many changes came in these cultural elements when Indians came in direct contact with the British and when the British rule established over here. These cultural elements came under the impact of westernization. After that many customs of Indian society were given legal form and many customs were restricted and started. For example sati system was restricted and widow remarriages were started. Even people started to print invitation cards for many occasions of life instead of calling their relatives personally. For example invitation cards of marriages, birth of child, birthdays, anniversaries, etc.

9. Impact on Life Style of the People. Indian life style is very much influenced by westernization. We can see even people of all the castes speaking English in metropolitan cities. In earlier times males used to wear ‘Dhoti Kurta’. But now they wear coat, pants, shirt, tie, jeans etc. Western fashion has completely changed life style of India. Now women wear jeans, pants, sarees, skirts, suits etc. Educated people often follow western culture in every sphere of life. Females are using make up kits to look beautiful. Now things of pleasure like TV, Car, Scooter, DVD, Camera, Mobile etc. are just like necessities of life. People are following everything of western culture in their lives.

10. Impact on Languages. In 1835, Lord Macaulay started English as a medium of education. After this people started to use English language. Yet English language is not a sanctioned language by the Indian Constitution but it has been adopted as a link language. In modern times, most of the schools, colleges, universities, medical colleges, Engineering colleges, management colleges and other professional colleges are using English language as a medium of instruction. Modern democracy, Parliamentary system, modern bureaucracy and the fundamental rights given to citizens are the legacy of English language.

11. Introduction of New Technology. The British used new technology in India. When developed technology was used in India then many changes came in Indian economy and living style of the people. They developed railways, made new roads, developed and encouraged press, made utensils of steel. Many revolutionary changes came in Indian society due to buses, railways, ships, post and telegraph, printing press. People started to eat their food by sitting on dinning tables instead of sitting on the floor and they started to use utensils of steel.

12. Industrialization. When the British established their rule over India, they started to export Indian raw material to England. They started to make things in England and sell those things in India. Things made by machines of high technology were less expensive and of good quality. But Indian made goods were more expensive and were not of good quality because they were made with hands. That’s why Indian industries suffered a gi;eat setback. The British started Zamindari system and their rules of business with which Indian economy weakened to a great extent. Things in these industries were made by machines. Things were made more than the local needs which resulted in the development of International business. But the Indian wealth started to flow towards Britain.

13. Development of New Administrative System. Modern Bureaucracy was introduced in India during British rule. Thousands of new posts were created. Indian Civil Services were started in which higher officials ye re started to be selected through competitive exams. Large structure of bureaucracy wqs introduced.

14. Development of Economic Institutions. Many economic institutions were developed in India during the British rule. Banks were established. Division of labour and specialization were developed. Capitalism was started in India. Problems of agricultural labour and industrial labour were increased. Strikes, lock outs of factories were started. Indian economy was turned towards a new direction with the advent of these economic institutions,

Question 5.
Write a note on Sanskritisation.
Or
What is Sanskritisation?
Or
Write a note on Sanskritisation?
Answer:
Famous Indian Sociologist M.N. Srinivas wrote a book called ‘Social Change in Modern India’ in which he elaborately explained the processes of social change. First of all he explained the process of Sanskritisation in which he said that, through this process, lower castes try to lift themselves up in the social hierarchy. In this book, he also wrote about changes which are coming among lower castes. Actually Srinivas used the word Sanskritisation to explain the process of mobility in traditional Indian social structure. He was of the view that only because of Sanskritisation, mobility started in caste system. According to him mobility was always possible in caste system and especially amo±.g lower and middle castes. Caste system was not so rigid to permanently fix the social status of a person. It could have been changed.

Meaning of Sanskritisation. First of all the word Sanskritisation was used by M.N. Srinivas in his book ‘Society Among the Coorgs’. He wrote this book after studying Coorgs of Mysore. He wrote that lower caste people have started to adopt the life style of upper castes to uplift their social status. Initially Srinivas used the word ‘Brahmanization’ for this process but later on he used the word Sanskritization. Srinivas was of the view that lower caste people have begun using life style of upper castes, with which social status of their children automatically goes upward after one or two generations. It means that when lower caste people start to adopt living style of higher castes then this process is known as the process of Sanskritization. Their status automatically goes upward with this process. In this process, first of all they used to leave their own customs, traditions, values and then they began to adopt the customs, values etc. of higher castes.

Definitions:

1. According to M.N. Srinivas, “Sanskritization is the process by which a low Hindu caste or tribaj or other group changes its customs, ideology and way of life in the direction of a higher and twice born caste.”

2. At another place Srinivas wrote, “Sanskritization means not only the adoption of new customs and habits, but also exposure to new ideas and values which have frequent express in the nest body of Sanskrit literature sacred as well as secular, Karma, dharma, pap, maya, sansar, moksha are examples of some of the most common Sanskrit theological ideas and when a person becomes Sanskritized, these words are used frequently.”

3. According to Dr. Yogendra Singh, “Sanskritization is the process of cultural and social mobility during these periods of relative closure of the Hindu social system. It is an endogamous source of social change. From a psychological point Sanskritization is the culture of higher group. The specific sense of Sanskritization is a unique historical expression of the general process of acculturation as a means of vertical mobility of groups.”

In this way Srinivas was of the view that it is right that people of lower caste adopted the living styles of upper castes but it doesn’t mean that it has changed the caste hierarchy. Yet they started to adopt life style of upper castes and even kept the subnames of higher castes but they could not become the upper castes. Srinivas was of the view that Sanskritization was not confined only among lower Hindu castes but it also took place among the tribes. Bhils, Gonds, Oraons tribes have also tried to adopt this process.

In this way the process of Sanskritization remains in caste system and through this process, people of lower castes try to adopt and imitate the life style, habits, ways of living of higher castes. After one or two generations they become mixed among the people of upper castes. So through this process, people of lower castes try to uplift their social status.

Question 6.
What do you understand by Sanskritisation? Explain its impact.
Or
Give Sanskritisation’s impact on Society.
Or
Explain impact of Sanskritisation.
Answer:
The process of Sanskritization has greatly affected the caste system of the Indian society. This process has reduced the impact of caste system and lower castes tried to uplift their social status with this process. Sanskritization has greatly affected lower castes because of which many changes came in their status and this description is given below:

1. The process of Sanskritisation has increased mobility among lower castes. Census report of 1921 says that many people of North India put sacred thread and started to call themselves Kshatriyas.

2. This process improved the status of lower castes. People of lower castes adopted the traditions, rituals, ideals and life style of higher castes and started to call themselves as members of higher castes. When they were able to achieve wanted place in local caste hierarchy then their position changes automatically.

3. This process has brought changes in occupation status of lower castes. They started to leave those occupations which were considered as impure and started to adopt pure occupations. Yet they were not allowed to adopt pure occupations but due to increasing consciousness towards purity they started to adopt occupations of upper castes.

4. The process of Sanskritization also brought many changes in their culture – folk ways, traditions, customs, beliefs, values, behaviour and mannerism. They started to imitate life style of upper castes with which their life style also changed.

5. Sanskritization has also affected religious life of lower castes. They started to adopt religious rituals of upper castes. Even they started to do yajans, puja etc. They left the impure occupations and adopted pure occupations. They started to celebrate even Hindu festivals as well.

6. Their economic status was also affected by this. They entered the industrial sector and government jobs with which their income was improved. They started to get technical and occupational education and started to achieve higher posts. Their income increased with modern occupations with which their economic status was improved.

7. Social life of lower castes also changed with this. Members of lower castes started to get education to improve their status. They got jobs in industries, offices, administration etc. They started to interact with people of upper castes which resulted in reduction of caste differences.

8. Their ways of living also changed with improvement of economic status, education, use of means of transport, jobs etc. They started to make concrete houses. Even they started to use means of leisure like furniture, chairs, table, TV, Fridge, Fans, Kitchen Gas, A.C. etc.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 6 Gender Inequalities Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 6 Gender Inequalities

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. On the basis of sex, how many classes are there in society?
(a) One
(b) Two
(c) Three
(d) Four
Answer:
(b) Two

2. Word ‘sex’ is a …………….. term.
(a) Social
(b) Biological
(c) Socio-cultural
(d) Political
Answer:
(b) Biological

3. Where is the word ‘Gender’ made?
(a) Home
(b) Society
(c) Country
(d) World
Answer:
(b) Society

4. When the difference is kept on the basis of gender, it is known as
(a) Gender socialisation
(b) Gender equality
(c) Gender discrimination
(d) Gender relation.
Answer:
(c) Gender discrimination

5. Name the book written by ‘Simone de Beauvoir’.
(a) The Second Sex
(b) The Third Sex
(c) The Second Job
(d) The Third Job
Answer:
(a) The Second Sex

6. Radical Feminism gives stress on ……………..
(a) Patriarchy
(b) Matriarchy
(c) Democracy
(d) Monarchy
Answer:
(a) Patriarchy

7. Sex Ratio can be defined as:
(a) Number of males per 1000 females
(b) Number of females per 1000 males
(c) Number of females per 1000 females
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Number of females per 1000 males.

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Two types of sexes ……………. and ……………… are there in the world.
Answer:
male, female

2. Major reason for gender inequality is …………………
Answer:
patriarchy

3. Meaning of ……………… is the authority of father at home.
Answer:
patriarchy

4. Marxist feminism gives stress on the relations between patriarchy and ……………….
Answer:
capitalism

5. ………………. wrote the book ‘The Second Sex’.
Answer:
Simone de Beauvoir

True/False:

1. Liberal feminism says that all humans are important.
Answer:
True

2. Radical feminism says that males play a very important role in oppressing females.
Answer:
True

3. Giving education to children according to their sex is called gender socialisation.
Answer:
True

4. Gender socialisation increases discrimination.
Answer:
True

5. In 2011 there were 914 females (0-6 years) behind every 1000 males.
Answer:
True

One Word/One Line Questions Answers:

Question 1.
Is there any discrimination against women in our society?
Answer:
Yes, there is discrimination against women in our society.

Question 2.
What is Karva Chauth?
Answer:
Females keep a fast for long life of their husband which is known as Karva Chauth.

Question 3.
Whose order is obeyed in patriarchy?
Answer:
In patriarchy, the order of father is obeyed.

Question 4.
What is sex?
Answer:
Sex is a biological word that tells us about the physical differences of male and female.

Question 5.
What is Gender Class?
Answer:
Gender is a word made by society that includes such conditions in which relations of male and female are there.

Question 6.
What do we study in gender relations?
Answer:
In gender relations, we study gender subordination.

Question 7.
On what the base of gender socialisation depends?
Answer:
The base of gender socialisation is if, but, do’s and don’ts.

Question 8.
What is gender socialisation?
Answer:
When society teaches its children to behave according to their sex, it is called gender socialisation.

Question 9.
What is gender discrimination?
Answer:
In different social .sectors, discrimination is made with females by males and this is gender discrimination.

Question 10.
What is Sex ratio?
Answer:
The number of females, in a given area, behind every 1000 males is known as sex ratio.

Question 11.
What is the major reason of decreasing sex ratio?
Answer:
Major reason of decreasing sex ratio is sex based abortion and wish to have a male child.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do we think when we talk about gender relations?
Answer:
Whenever we talk about gender realtions, we think about four things:

• Inequalities between man and woman
• Relation between man power and woman power.
• To analyse the domination of man power over women.
• Women participation in economic and political fields.

Question 2.
What is the difference between Sex and Gender?
Answer:
Sex is a biological concept which shows the physical differences between male an,d female. But Gender is a socially constructed concept which includes all those political, cultural, socio-psychological and economic propositions in which males and females work.

Question 3.
What do you mean by Gender Relations?
Answer:
The meaning of gender relations is such relations between males and females which are based on ideological, cultural, political and economic issues. In this, we study gender domination, issues concerning uplifting status of women and problems related to women.

Question 4.
Which issues do we talk about in gender relations?
Answer:
In gender relations, we talk about many issues such as institutions of marriage and family, relations before mari.age, relations after marriage, issue of homosexuality, issue of transgender etc.

Question 5.
On what the subordination of women is based?
Answer:
In different societies, the subordination of women is based on many issues such as class, caste, religion, education, socio-cultural background etc. The nature of society decides the level of women subordination.

Question 6.
What is meant by Gender Socialisation?
Answer:
The meaning of gender socialisation is that method with which society cares that its children should learn the habits according to their sex. It divides children in different groups according to their sex. In this way society controls human behaviour.

Question 7.
What is meant by Gender discrimination?
Answer:
It means women are treated or behaved with subordination, exclusion and non-participation and they are ignored in many senses. Such behaviour-is known as gender discrimination.

Question 8.
What is meant by sex-ratio?
Answer:
The number of females, in a given particular area, after every 1000 males is known as sex ration. According to census survey 2011, sex ratio in India was 1000: 914 (0-6 years.)

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Gender.
Answer:
In simple words, word Gender is used to explain physical and social differences between male and female. It means that what are the physical differences between male and female which one gets by nature itself and which are social differences which both get while living in society. The word Gender is used to explain such differences.

Question 2.
Gender Discrimination.
Answer:
In common language, there exist few differences between male and female and these differences are given the name of gender discrimination. Two types of humans—male and female, live in this world. Any person can only be identified by looking at his/her physical features that weather a person is male or female. Nature has kept few differences between them. Both male and female have their own physical features. Discrimination can be made between the both on the basis of their sex. In this way, what difference is there between male and female is given the name of gender discrimination.

Question 3.
Social factor of Gender Discrimination.
Answer:
Yet nature has kept few differences between male and female but humans themselves have created few differences between the both. Right from the ancient times, females are discriminated. They were kept away from education and property. They were confined only to four walls of the house. All of their decisions were taken by males and males had complete control over females. Yet these differences are decreasing day by day in modern societies but they still exist in traditional societies.

Question 4.
Natural factor of Gender Discrimination.
Answer:
Nature itself has started this gender discrimination. Man is created by nature itself. Nature has created two types of humans—male and female. Males are given hairs on body, strength, good physical structure but females are given beauty, good behaviour, love, sympathy, softness etc. Males are given hard work like earning bread and butter, doing hard labour but females are given easy works. In this way nature itself has created gender discrimination.

Question 5.
Causes of Gender Discrimination.
Answer:

• Differences given by nature itself.
• Due to the wish of males.
• Due to existence of male dominated societies.
• Due to evils of social institution.
• Due to lack of physical strength among females.

Question 6.
Consequences of Gender Discrimination.
Answer:

• Low social status of females.
• More control of males over society.
• Increase in strength of male dominated society.
• Decrease of sex ratio in society.
• Increase in imbalance of power.

Question 7.
Sex Ratio.
Answer:
In simple words the number of females behind 1000 males in one square kilometre is known as sex ratio. It means that how many females are there behind 1000 males in a particular area. Word sex ratio is one of the demographic features of any country’s population and to know something about any country’s population, knowledge of sex ratio is must. Sex ratio in India in 2001 was 1000: 933 and it was 1000: 943 in 2011.

Question 8.
Causes of lower status of women.
Answer:

• In joint family system, female has to live in many types of restrictions in the four walls of house and her position became lower.
• Position of female became lower due to dominance of males in society and due to patriarchal families.
• Females were not able to get education due to child marriage with which her position deteriorated.
• She was not aware about her rights due to illiteracy and that’s why her status was lower in society.
• She was economically dependent upon males because of which she had to face lower status in the society.

Question 9.
Religious disabilities of women.
Answer:
A female was considered as necessary to complete religious rituals in Vedic age. But with the passage of time, her status changed and her social status became lower. Her religious knowledge came to an end due to child marriage and that’s why she was started to keep away from Yagyas. Because she was unable to get education, that’s why her religious education and knowledge also came to an end. Now she was not allowed to perform Yagyas and religious rituals. Her religious functions came to an end due to the dominance of males. Her religion and duty remains confined only to serve the husband and the family. In this way she was differentiated from religious education because she was considered as impure due to her monthly periods. In this way religious disabilities were slapped on her.

Question 10.
Economic disabilities of women.
Answer:
Females also had to face many economic disabilities. She had the right to keep property in Vedic age but later on this right came to an end. In medieval period she was neither allowed to keep property. She was not given any share in father’s property. Property, in joint family, was in the names of males of the family. It was not given to her at the time of division of property. Her Work was only to serve the family and her husband. She had no freedom related to money. Economically she was dependent upon father, husband and her sons.

Question 11.
Changes which are coming in the status of women.
Answer:

• Females are getting education due to advent of education.
• Females are doing jobs in offices and industries due to industrialisation.
• Her mentality is now changing due to the development of western culture and now she has come to know about her rights.
• Indian government has made many laws to uplift her status and that’s why her status is going higher and higher.
• Now she came out of the four walls of the house due to disintegration of joint families.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is the meaning of Gender? Explain it in the form of Social Construct.
Or
Write a note on Gender as a Social Construct.
Answer:
Generally the word gender is used to tell physical and social difference between male and female. It means that what are the physical differences between male and female which are given by nature and which are the social differences which they both get while living in society. Word Gender is used to tell these differences. If we look at its biological aspect then we will come to know that there are many biological differences in male and female like sexual organs or coming out of some parts etc. or ability to do any specific work of male and female.

In this manner if we look from the social point of view then we can see that there are many social differences in males and females. For example, Patriarchal society and Matriarchal society. In Patriarchal society, family takes order from males, every one obeys the eldest male, father earns the money and female takes care of family. Status of female in patriarchal society is very low. Her status is not more than mother of the children 6r a maid. In this way position of father in patriarchal society is very high.

He takes care of the house and nomenclature of the house is on the name of father. Son gets ancestral property from his father. On the other side status of male is lower than that of female in Matriarchal society. Family and society is run by the female. Females have every type of power and authority in this type of society. Female is the wholly incharge of house. Nomenclature’is on the name of mother. Male goes to live to female’s house after marriage. Property in these societies is generally given to daughter or to nephew (Son of the sister).

From this example we can come to know that gender difference is not only on the biological basis but we can see gender difference on the social basis as well. While living in society we can see many examples from which we can come to know about gender difference. But the meaning of gender is different for sociologists. Sociologists are in favour of giving complete explanation of this word and want to know that upto what extent gender behaviour is natural, social or is made by humAnswer: Sociologists take the meaning of gender in two ways.

1. First meaning is that which biological or physical differences are there in males and females. It means that because of which biological or physical differences we can differentiate between males and females. These differences are natural and they are out of control of hum Answer:

2. Second meaning of gender is by cultural and social differences in the roles and behaviour of humAnswer: It means that what are the differences produced by humans while living in society and from which we can come to know about gender difference (Male and Female). These differences are made in society and they are made by humAnswer: .
In this way sociologists take the meaning of gender in two parts. Biological differences are coming in first part which depend upon nature. Socio-cultural differences are coming in second part which are made by humAnswer:

For example females are not allowed to go through the upanayana Samskara to enter into Brahmcharya Ashrama. But here one question arises that the behaviour of male and female is determined by biological factor or is determined by socio-cultural factors? Which factors affect the behaviour of both male and female? Whether male and female are different from each other naturally or difference between them is made in society? Whether males are clever and rational by birth and females are peaceful and tolerable by nature? Whether just males will go out of house to earn money and females will take care of family and children? Why females cannot go out of house to earn money and why males cannot take care of the house? Questions of this nature are very serious and these type of questions should be taken care. While looking at these type of qustions, two views are coming in front of us to solve these questions. Both of these views are given by Naturists and sociologists. These views are given below:

1. Naturists are of the view that if there are any socio-cultural differences in both the sexes then these are because of biological differences. It means that the base of socio-cultural differences in both the sexes is not social but is biological. Which ever differences nature has given to humans, are the basis of socio cultural differences. Males are considered more powerful than females and they are. That is why they take care of the society. Nature has given the functions of producing and upbringing of children to females because they get the qualities of love, tolerance and taking care by nature. There is no need to tell them how to tolerate and to love because these qualities in females are there by birth. In this way the system of division of labour in males and females is coming from ancient times that males will go out of house for work and females will take care of house and children. That is why every person gets some qualities of doing any work by birth and they are doing that work.

This view of Naturists is definitely a part of evolutionary theory of Darwin. But this view has gone even beyond the view of Darwin. Naturists are of the view that every organism goes from a process of evolution means it, moves from smaller to bigger and simplicity to complexity. For example embryo is produced after the mating of male and female and embryo develops in the form of child. In this way every organism starts from the lowest level and goes upto the highest level. Naturists are of the view that biologically male and female are different from each other and they both are living their lives in a different way. But male is more powerful than female and that is why his status is higher than that of female. His authority is there in society and he takes all the major decisions of the family and society.

But here social anthropologists are of the view that there are physical differences in males and females but they have tied physical differences with social roles. According to Murdock, physical difference in male and female is the base of gender division of labour in society. It means that yet there are physical differences in males and females but these physical differences are the base of division of labour in males and females in society. He says that because males are more powerful and females are capable of taking care of childen and this division of labour determines the gender roles. In this way Parsons was of the view that females give love, sympathy and emotional strength to males because they get these traits by birth and these traits play an important role in the socialization of a child. Males are going out for work and females are doing house hold works. According to him there should be clear division of labour among both the sexes so that social system should run smoothly.

But the views of Murdock and Parsons has been criticised. Some Naturists have criticised the view that social roles are determined due to biological differences. They are of the view that both mother and father take care of the house and if need arises they take each other’s role. Today even females are doing functions which were specified only to males like job in military, working in mines or making big buildings. In this way they are of the view that social roles are not determined by biological difference but biological difference plays an important role in the determination of gender role.

2. Sociological View. On the other side, views of sociologists are exactly opposite to Naturists. They completely disapprove the views that biological differences determine the gender role. They says that gender roles are not determined due to biological factors but these are formed in society and are determined by culture. Person has to do many roles while living in society. Yet these roles are given on the basis of gender like father or mother. But most of the roles are given to the person according to the culture of society.

They are of the view that we can see many examples of society that except producing children, no other function is reserved for females. Gender base of femalds cannot prevent them from doing any work and they can do every type of work. Even the role of mother is given tQ them by culture and society. Many examples are there with us which tell us that those children who don’t have mother due to one or another reason, the role of mother is generally fulfilled by Father. In this way sociologists are of the view that social factors play an important role in determining gender role.

Role Of Gender In Social Construct:

Gender roles never come due to biological reasons but they come due to cultural factors. In other words we can say that humans learn to fulfil the roles of male and female while living only in the society. Just after birth, they hardly come to know that he or she is boy or girl. They come to know about their gender only by livng in society and by the ways of behaviour of people towards them. Now we will look it into the form of socialization. Socialization has a great role in making of an animal into a social animal. Both sexes contribute in the socialization of the person. This is known as gender socialization.

Socialization. Socialization is one of the most important concept in sociology. The process of socialization is that process with which a person learns the ways of living and behaving in society. Person learns to play social roles in this process. In this way gender socialization is that process in which males and. females learn to behave according to their sex. It is that process which starts right after the birth of the child and goes on till the death of the person. Our gender role starts at very early stage and child comes to know about playing his role according to his sex. This process has many stages which are given below:

1. Determination of gender based role after sometime of the birth. Even child of 1-2 years of age comes to know about this because members of the society behaves with him or her according to the sex. Even the calling of the children is according to the sex. Behaviour towards the girl is generally very much soft as compared to boys. Boys are considered as powerful and clever as compared to girls. Parents also behave with the children according to the sex yet the difference of behaviour is very less. Children of both the sexes are given different types of clothes to wear. Even the colours of the clothes are also different. Ways of behaviour talking etc. are also different with them. Even punishment to the child is given according to the sex of the child. In this way gender socialization starts after some time of the birth and it goes on for the whole life.

2. Second stage of Gender socialization starts in the childhood when child takes parts in games and play groups. Child takes parts in play groups according to his sex. Girl child plays with other girls and boy child plays with other boys. At this stage, even the difference also comes in playing different games. Boys are playing those games which needs a lot of hard work and girls plays those games which need less hard work. Even boys are motivated to play those games which require a lot of hard work. Even the toys and sporting things given to boys and girls are also different. Boys are given the toys of guns, buses, car and things of out door sport and girls are generally given things of indoor sports. In this way boys and girls start to learn to behave according to their group with which they coine to know about ways of living in society.

3. Third stage of the process of gender socialization is school where child spends very valuable years of his life. This is the time when child goes in either the wrong way or he learns a lot. This process not only goes on in the family but it goes on in the school with great pace. No other means except -school can put a great influence on the gender behaviour of the child. Child sits in the class according to his or her sex. They behave with each other according to his or her sex, Girls sit away from the boys and even talk with them from a distance because they are told to do so.- Boys are generally influenced by female teachers and girls are generally affected by male teachers. In school, they both form their own group which helps in the making of society.

Both learn to work according to their sex. Boys are going out of the house to do some household work and girls are generally working the household work in the house. Girls are taking easy subjects in school i.e. home science, arts etc. and boys are given tough subjects like science, maths, commerce etc. In this way the formation of main elements of making the society starts at this level.

4. Next and the last stage of gender socialization is adult socialization in which both the sexes completely differentiate from each other. Boys are doing powerful works after getting adulthood and girls generally like to do work of less hard work like teaching or work of clerk etc. Females are getting very few higher positions. Females are generally given less pay and less promotions. Females never like to change their jobs very quickly.

In this way both the groups start functioning in a different way on the basis of gender with which society works in a proper way. If there would be no difference between them on the basis of their work then the functions of both the groups will mix with each other and no one would be able to work properly. Social system and structure will be destroyed with this. Then every person will work according to his wish and the division of labour on the basis of gesder qlso come to an end. Males

and females throw their responsibilities on each other and no one would like to take his responsibility. In this way we can say that the gender has a great role in form of social construct and that is why society works very smoothly.

Question 2.
What are the reasons behind the lower status of women?
Answer:
Status of women was sometime better and sometime worse in different ages. It was very good in Vedic Age but slowly and slowly it deteriorated. Aftet Vedic Age especially from Medieval Age to British Age her position was worse. There was not one factor’ responsible for the lower status of women but many factors were there which are given below:

1. Joint Family System. One system of joint family prevailed in Indian society. This custom played a very important role in the pitiable condition of female. Under this system female had no right to keep property and had no any other social right. She was confined only to the four walls of the house. Child marriage and Sati Pratha systems were also given importance in ancient family system because of which her position was lower in the family.

2. Patriarchal Family. We can see most of the families in Indian society as patriarchal family. In.this type of family, every function of the family is being done with the wish of the male. Nomenclature of father is given to the child. Female has to go to her husband’s house after marriage. Right over property, over family matters is of father. In this type of family status of woman is very much lower because males of the family hardly take the advice of the female in any of the matters.

3. Ideal of Kanyadan. Ideal of Kanyadan prevails in Hindu marriage right from the ancient times. Father finds a suitable match for his girl and gives her hand in the boy’s hand as aim or Dann. The custom of Kanyadan performed by father is the symbol of one thing that husband has full right over his wife. In this way, due to the ideal of Kanyadan, her position in the society remains lower.

4. Child Marriage. The custom of child marriage is also responsible for the lower position of women. Due to this custom girl was married to boy at a very young age because of which she was neither been able to get education nor she came to know about her rights. Husbands also control their wives because of which female has to live under the control of her husband.

5. Hypergamy. In the custom of Hypergamy or Kulin Vivaha, girl is to be married either in the family of equal status or in the family of higher status but boys are free to marry even in the family of lower status. That’s why parents were used to marry their daughter in her young age so that she should nor face any problem regarding marriage. In this way girl was forced to live without education and her position remains lower in society.

6. Illiteracy of Women. Condition of Hindu woman was pitiable due to unavailability of education. She was unable to get education due to child marriage and it was the main reason of ignorance towards her rights. She was strangled in the cycle of superstitions, social traditions, evils due to ignorance that she was unable to come out of it. She was given the teaching, right from the childhood that the order of husband for her is just like an order from the god and she had to live her whole life while serving husband and others. Due to all these factors she was unconscious about her rights and her status remained lower the society.

7. Economic Dependency of Women. Male is the head of the family right from the ancient times and he takes care of the family. All the functions of the family are being done by him. Female was not allowed to go out for work because it was considered as the disrespect of the family. That’s why female has to depend, economically, on her husband. That’s why the status of women remained lower in the society.

8. Brahmanism. Some thinkers are of the view that Hindus religion or Brahmanism was the main reason of lower status of woman because whichever social rules and religious rules were made by brahmins, all have given higher status to males and lower status to females. According to Manu, the main function of the woman was to serve her husband. When Muslims had established their supremacy in India then they had no problem in making marital relations with Hindu females. That’s why Hindus had made very strict rules regarding marriage to secure Hindu females from Muslims. Child marriage was encouraged and widow remarriage was restricted because of which the status of women remained lower and lower in the society.

Question 3.
Which disabilities women had to face in life?
Or
Write a detailed note on the major problems faced by women in India.
Answer:
It has been.beleived that males and females are equal in number and they both had got the equal rights in Vedic Age. But the ages were changed with the passage of time and many changes came in the status of women. Status of women deteriorated and she had to face many restrictions. Many disabilities were slapped on her. Then her respect remains only in the form of mother. Some of the disabilities are given below:

1. Religious disabilities. Status of woman was very good in Vedic Age and she hardly faced any disabilities in that age. Woman was considered as very important for religious functions because it was believed that she is very much necessary to complete yajna and other rituals. With this females were getting education and education was based upon religion. That’s why she had complete knowledge of religious books.

But with the passage of time, her status changed and became lower. Her religious knowledge came to an end due to child marriage and that’s why she was started to keep away from Yagayas. Because she was unable to get education, so her religious education and knowledge also came to an end. Now she was not allowed to perform Yagyas and religious rituals. Her religious functions came to an end due to the dominance of males. Her duty remained confined only to serve the husband and the family. In this way she was kept away from religious education because she was considered as impure due to her monthly periods. In this way religious disabilities were slapped on her.

2. Social disabilities. Social disabilities also started for woman with religious disabilities. She hardly got education due to child marriage. She was unable to do any job due to non-availability of education for her and education is considered as necessary to get any job. At the time of education she was married in childhood and that’s why she was unable to get education.

Many social evils also prevailed related to women in our society. First evil was child marriage. She had to marry in her childhood because of which she was not allowed to get any education and was not doing any function out of the house. She was limited only to the four walls of the house.

Purdah pratha also prevailed in our society with child marriage. She was not allowed to come in front of every one. If she was coming then she had to take one long purdah (ghoonghat). Sati pratha was also there in Indian society. If husband of any female was died then living life alone was considered as hell for her. That’s why she had to do Sati and was forced to sit alive on the funeral pyre of her husband. In Vedic age widow remarriages were there but later on they also came to an end. Sati Pratha prevailed in Indian society till 19th century. When Muslims established their empire in India then they started to marry Hindu female. So to save females from Muslims, many restrictions were imposed on her by the upper castes. In this way many social disabilities were imposed on her.

3. Familial disabilities. Women also had to face many disabilities related to family. Yet the status of women of rich families was very good but the status of women of poor families was very bad. Condition of a widow was very pitiable. Wife was considered as servant. She was beaten up by husband even due to small small thing. Her duty was to serve the husband and the family. Father in law and mother in law also commitejl many atrocities on her. She was always dependent upon males. She was dependent upon father before marriage, on husband after marriage and on children in her old age. Patriarchal families were there because of which no advice of women was taken in any decisions of the families. Even the decision of her marriage was taken by her father. In this way she was considered as servant of the family.

4. Economic disabilities. Females also had to face many economic disabilities. She had the right to keep property in Vedic age but later on this right came to an end. In medieval period she was neither allowed to keep property. She was not given any share in father’s property. Property, in joint family, was on the names of males of the family. It was not given to her at the time of division of property. Her work was only to serve the family and her husband. She had no freedom related to money. Economically she was dependent upon father, husband and her sons.

In this way we can see that the women had to face many disabilities in society. Yet there was no such disability to women in Vedic Age and she had a. number of rights in that age. But later on all these rights came to an end and the place of rights was taken away by disabilities.

Question 4.
Which types of efforts were being done after independence for the improvement of status of women?
Or
Highlight the role of legislation in the upliftment of status of women.
Or
Highlight the role of various legislations and government programmes in uplifting their status.
Answer:
Half the population of the country is of women. So it is necessary, for the development of the country, that their condition should also be improved and the evils related to them should also be removed. After independence many provisions were kept in Constitution with which efforts were done to improve the status of women. Many laws were made to uplift her social status. The following efforts were done to improve the status and the welfare of the women.

1. Constitutional Provisions. Many provisions were kept in Constitution to improve the status of women:

• Article 14 of the Constitution says that every one is equal in front of law.
• According to Article 15 (1) of the Constitution there shall be no discrimination with Indian citizen on the bases of religion, caste, sex or living place.
• Article 15 (3) says that the state shall do special efforts for women and children.
• Article 16 says that state shall give equal opportunities to all Indian citizens in the matters of employment and appointments.
• Article 39 (D) of the Constitution says that males and females will get same pay for same work.
• Article 42 of the Constitution says that state shall produce judicial condition of functions and shall provide more and more maternity help.
• Article 51 (A) (E) says that the customs disgracing women’s respect shall be sacrificed.
• Article 243 of the Constitution says that one-third seats in local government- panchayats and municipalities shall be kept reserved.

2. Legislations. Many laws have been made for the security of interests of women and to improve their social status which is given below:

• The Sati Prohibition Act 1829, 1987.
• The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
• The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929.
• The Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act, 1937.
• The Special Marriage Act, 1954.
• The Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act 1955 and 1967.
• The Hindu Succession Act, 1956.
• The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, 1986.
• The Maternity Relief Act, 1961, 1976.
• The Muslim Women Protection of Right of Divorce, 1986.

Yet many of these laws were made even before independence but they were also amended after independence. Many problems of women came to an end due to these laws like Dowry system, Sati pratha, Child marriage, No Right to keep property etc. These laws have greatly helped in the improvement of status of women.

3. Women Welfare Programmes. Many programmes were started after independence to uplift the status of women whose description is given below:

• International Women Day was celebrated in 1975 and many programmes were started for their welfare.
• DWAKRA programme was started in 1982-83 to strengthen the rural women rom economic point of view.
• Women Development corporation was established in 1986-87 so that the women could get opportunities of employment.
• National Women Commission was reorganized in 1922 so that the attrocities committed on women could be stopped.

4. Women cells were established in the country. These are those organization of women which arranges for the welfare programmes for women in rural areas. 75% of total money spending on these programmes is given by central social welfare board.

5. Many houses have been estabhshed for the working women in cities. Central Social Welfare Board has estabhshed hostels in many cities so that the working women would be able to live in cities.

6. Central Social Welfare Board has started many socio-economic programmes after 1958 in country so that the needy women could be provided the employment. Dairy programmes are also included in this. In this way, many programmes were started after independence so that the social status of women could be uphfted. In this way, we can see a very good future of women in coming days.

Question 5.
Explain the different causes which have brought changes in the status of women and also explain the present status of women.
Answer:
A great change has come in the status of Indian women in today’s age. There is a lot of difference in status of women in present age and pre-independence age. Today she has come out of four walls of the house and is working in the offices, factories. But this change has not come due to one or two reasons, but it has many reasons. The description of these reasons and the present status of women is given below:

1. Improvement in the literacy rate of women. No one was taking care of education of women before independence but Indian government took many steps to uplift the level of education among women. That’s why the level of education among women has been increased to a great extent. The government arranged for free education for girls, given them the scholarships, arranged for free books so that the people could send their girl child to school to get education. In this way, education gradually spread among women and their level and standard of education started to increase. Now girls are getting higher education in every sector. Their age of marriage has also gone up due to education with which, their living standard has been moved in upward direction. Now they are getting education like boys. In this way, the major reason for the change in status of women is the spread of education among them.

2. Industrialization. Industries started to develop very quickly after independence. Females came out of the four walls of the house, due to education, and started going out for a job which resulted in the relaxation of restrictions upon her. Females started to work in offices with males with which the restrictions of caste system came to an end. Love marriages started to increase due to her interaction with others. Her economic dependence upon males was decreased due to her job which resulted in the improvement in her condition. It this way, industrialization played an important role in the improvement of status of women.

3. Western culture. India came in direct contact with the western countries after independence because of which their cultures and ideas also came to our country. Females came to know about their rights and freedom because of which their ideology started to change. That’s why females now are standing with males in every sector. Working women became economically self dependent and a sense of equality, with males, also came in them. Many feminist movements also started because of which consciousness came among them and changes came in their status.

4. Inter caste marriages. Hindu Marriage Act was passed in 1955 which gave the legal sanction to inter caste marriages. Females started to work in offices due to spread of education. She came in contact with other castes due to her job. Love marriages, inter caste marriages were increased very quickly which has resulted in the change in ideology of the people. That’s why her status rose in the eyes of general public and she started to get more respect due to her economic self-dependence. In this way, the custom of dowry was deceased due to intercaste marriages and her position started to change in society.

5. Development in the means of communication and transport. Means of transport and communication started to develop after independence. People started to come in contact with each other. People started to move towards far off cities, by leaving their villages, with which they came in contact with other castes. With this many feminist movements were also started and many laws were made to stop the exploitation of the women. Women started to get education and came out for jobs due to the development in means of transport and ideology of people started to change.

6. Formation of Laws. Many laws were made even before independence to uplift the status of women but they were not properly implemented because our country was under foreign rule. But many changes came in these laws after independence and were strictly implemented. Except these many other laws were also made, like Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Dowry Prohibition Act to stop the exploitation of women. Due to’ these laws, her exploitation was reduced and she started to feel safe in the changed atmosphere. Now .every one thinks many times before doing the exploitation of women because nowr laws are with women. In this way status of women has also changed due to these laws.

7. Disintegration of joint family. Joint families started to disintegrate because of many reasons like development in means of transport and communication, education, jobs, working in offices, getting job away from the city or the village, industrialization etc. Due to disintegration of joint families, nuclear families came into being which is actually based upon the equality of males and females. Female in joint family is considered only as a servant but the status of a woman is equal to ftiale in a nuclear family where she is standing with males in economic or any other sector. In this way due to the disintegration of joint families and the advent of nuclear family, status of women has been changed to a great extent. In this way after looking at the given description we can say that the status of women has been changed due to these factors and the status of present day’s women is actually equal to males.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 6 Gender Inequalities Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 6 Gender Inequalities

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Gender Inequalities Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Gender relations refer to:
(a) Inequality between men and women.
(b) Between male power and female power.
(c) Dominance of male power and female power.
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(b) Between male power and female power.

2. Transgender means:
(a) Male
(b) Female
(c) Third Gender
(d) All of the above
Answer:
(c) Third Gender

3. The Sociologist Theory of feminism was given by:
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Auguste Comte
(c) Weber
(d) Emile Durkheim
Answer:
(a) Karl Marx

4. Gender discrimination is:
(a) Behaviour subordination
(b) Exclusion
(c) Non-Participation
(d) All of the above
Answer:
(d) All of the above

5. Sex ratio means:
(а) Number of females per 1000 males
(b) Number of males per 1000 males
(c) Number of children per 1000 females
(d) Number of females and males.
Answer:
(a) Number of females per 1000 males

Fill in the Blanks:

1. …………….. means the rule of the father in a male-dominated family.
Answer:
Patriarch

2. The basic issue associated with …………………. is women subordination.
Answer:
Feminism

3. ……………….. feminism focuses on the universal nature of patriarchy.
Answer:
Marxist

4. The …………………. family is patriarchal.
Answer:
male-dominated

5. The census of India of 2011 reveals that there are …………………… females against 1000 males.
Answer:
943

True/False:

1. Gender socialisation institutionalised women’s subordination.
Answer:
True

2. Sex ratio refers to male per 1000 females.
Answer:
False

3. Transgender refers to the category of persons who have attributes of both male and female.
Answer:
True

4. Liberal feminism believes that all individuals are important and equal.
Answer:
True

Match the Columns:

Column A	Column B
Sex	Rule of father
Patriarchy	Expected attitudes and behaviour
Simone de Beauvoir	Biological category
Gender role	Vindication of the rights of women
Wollstonecraft	The second sex

Answer:

Column A	Column B
Sex	Biological category
Patriarchy	Rule of father
Simone de Beauvoir	The second sex
Gender role	Expected attitudes and behavior
Wollstonecraft	Vindication of the rights of women

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Which is a socially and culturally constructed process?
Answer:
Gender is a socially and culturally constructed process.

Question 2.
Give the term for a male-dominated family.
Answer:
Patriarchal family.

Question 3.
A number of female children (0-6 years) per 1000 male children is known as?
Answer:
Child sex ratio.

Question 4.
Define the term which refers to the number of females per 1000 males.
Answer:
Sex ratio.

Question 5.
Define Sex.
Answer:
Sex is a biological word that clearly defines the difference between males and females.

Question 6.
Define Gender.
Answer:
Word Gender is made by society. It means that behaviour is made with social customs.

Question 7.
What do you mean by gender relations?
Answer:
Gender relations are the relations between men and women based on ideological, cultural, political and economic issues.

Question 8.
What is patriarchy?
Answer:
It is the social system ruled by the father. His order is followed by all and family runs on his name.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is the difference between the term sex and gender?
Answer:
Word sex is a biological term used to show difference between man and woman. Gender is a concept made by society which means that behaviour made with the help of social customs.

Question 2.
What do you mean by gender inequality?
Answer:
In our society, discrimination takes place between man and woman on the basis of sex. Males are given all the rights but females are not given all the rights although they are provided by the Constitution. This is known as gender inequality.

Question 3.
Is gender socialisation a symbol of discrimination?
Answer:
Yes, gender socialisation is actually a symbol of discrimination because right from their childhood, children are taught according to their sex. They are expected to behave according to the rules made for their sex and it clearly shows discrimination.

Question 4.
Is violence against women a consequence of patriarchy?
Answer:
Our social system is patriarchal in nature in which males dominate and take all important decisions of family. Girls are taught that they are weaker than boys and they take advantage of this. Consequently, they commit violence against girls.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is the theory of feminism?
Answer:
Feminism is a collection of movements and ideologies whose aim was to define, establish and protect political, economic and social rights of women. This also includes the demand of establishing equal chances for them in the educational and employment sector. Major objective of feminist theories was to understand nature and reasons of gender inequality and to explain its effects on the politics of gender discrimination and theories of power equilibrium.

Question 2.
Give examples of gender discrimination in public sphere.
Or
Write some features of gender discrimination in India.
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that there exists gender discrimination in public sphere. The meaning of public sphere is politics. If we look at the percentage of female participation in country’s politics then we can easily say that it is quite less. In the Indian Parliament, the number of elected women M.P.’s never exceed 15% of the total membership. This number was less than 12% in first 15 Lok Sabhas. It clearly shows us an example of gender discrimination. A bill to give 33% reservation was introduced in the Parliament long long ago but is yet to get the nod. It also shows us about gender discrimination. One third of the total seats are reserved for women in local self bodies but the actual work is done by their husbands which clearly explains about gender discrimination.

Question 3.
What is the role of caste in gender discrimination?
Answer:
If we look at the histroy of Indian history, we can clearly observe that the major reason of gender discrimination is caste system. When there was no caste system, women had many rights and they enjoyed high status in society. But with the advent of caste system, their social status started declining. In caste system, they were considered impure and many disabilities were attached with them. Their condition further deteriorated with child marriage, caste system etc. During medieval period, caste system imposed many restrictions on females to save them from Muslims. This further deteriorated their condition. Sati pratha and polygamy continued with the work. In this way we can say that caste system played a very important role in increasing gender discrimination.

Question 4.
What is the role of religion in gender discrimination?
Answer:
We cannot deny the role of religion in gender discrimination. Religion played a great role in increasing gender discrimination in society. Due to religion and caste, females were designated as impure. During few days of a month, they were restricted to enter temples or to do religious functions. Such customs are practised even in present age. Even today, there are few temples in which female entry is still banned because of the disabilities attached with them. When foreign invaders attacked India, many religions imposed many restrictions on females and such restrictions are continued till today. Yet, with education, the impact of religion is decreasing but still people do not prefer to work against religion and it becomes one of the reasons of gender discrimination.

Question 5.
Write a note on gender socialisation in Rural India and in Urban India.
Or
Discuss the concept of Gender Socialisation.
Answer:
In gender socialisation, children are told to behave according to their sex. Girls are told to wear proper dress, to have girls as friends and to remain within their limits and are told to maintain family prestige. This becomes one reason of gender discrimination. Gender discrimination lies within the sphere of gender socialisation. This happens a great deal in rural areas because people are less educated and attached with the traditional customs. Yet, the literacy rate in urban areas has moyed upwards, even then girls are told to behave in a specific way so that they must remain within their limits. All this helps in increasing gender discrimination.

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Describe important theories of Feminism.
Or
Describe in detail the Marxist theory of Feminism.
Or
Discuss Marxist Feminism.
Or
Discuss Liberal theory of Feminism.
Or
Write note on Radical and Liberal Feminism.
Or
Explain Marxist Feminism Theory.
Answer:
Feminism is a collection of movements and ideologies whose aim was to define, establish and protect political, economic and social rights of women. This also includes the demand of establishing equal chances for them in the educational and employment sector. Major objective of feminist theories was to understand nature and reasons of gender inequality and to explain its effects on the politics of gender discrimination and theories of power equilibrium.

Feminism is an ideology in which we can include many views such as Marxist Feminism, Radical Feminism, Liberal Feminism etc. These theories actually stress on patriarchy and form the logic of women’s movement. Major issue of feminism is attached with the subordination of women. Major feminist theories are given below:

1. Marxist Feminism. This theory is derived out of Karl Marx’s socialist theory. This theory tells us that how the female exploitation has been built systematically into the structure of society. He concentrated on the relations between patriarchy and capitalism. According to Marx, women oppression is the consequence of ideological domination which comes out of economic activities. According to Friedrich Engels, great changes came in the status of women development of capitalism and advent of individual property. He believed that female activities were confined only within the family but bourgeoisie .family was patriarchal and based on exploitation since men tried to ensure that property must be passed only to their sons.

2. Liberal Feminism. The followers of radical feminism believed that all the humans are equal. So, they should be equally treated. Mary Wallstonecraft wrote a book called “Vindication of the Rights of Women’ in 1972 and this was the first book of modern feminism which supported the women’s right to vote. Wallstonecraft wrote that if women gained education according to their natural rights, thre will be no importance of gender in political and social sectors.

3. Radical Feminism: This theory concentrates on the universal nature of patriarchy and tells that males play a very important role in oppressing women. Simone de Beauvior wrote a book called “The Second Sex’ in which she wrote that “Women are made, not born.” She believed that with the existence of abortion rights, control on birth rate and end of monogamy will give them more right over their body. Supporters of this theory believed that the basis of women exploitation is their reproductive capacity which is controlled by men. They also believed that patriarchy is not natural or necessary but its roots are attached with biology. Females can get liberation if gender differences could be removed.

Question 2.
Women are not born, they are made.’ Comment.
Answer:
Existentialists have the view that humans are not born but they are the results of our alternatives because we make ourselves with our own means and the means available in society. Simone de Beauvior wrote a book ‘The Second Sex’ in which she gave an unclear picture of human independence that with what disabilities females live due to their body. In this book, she also wrote that how female looks at the changes coming in her body. Here she looks at woman’s body as a facility and disability and female as an independent and a suppressed person. Actually, it depends upon a female that how does she look at herself, as an independent thing or a thing gazed by society.

Few individuals are of the view that a female is a good object whose definition is written by us. De Beauvior takes up the same issue and applies it on the views of women about men. The view about a women is a term defined by males in which she is considered an object and man considers himself a subject. In this way, word ‘women’ is that meaning given by men.

De Beauvoir says that biological condition of women is not against them but is a condition which becomes positive or negative. Biological experiences of women such as pregnancy, periods, changes in body etc. don’t have any meaning of its own but in an opposite society, they are considered a pressure and in patriarchal society, this is seen as a disadvantage for them.

In this way, yet female is born naturally but different views about her are made in different societies. In many societies, she is considered as an object of consumption and has to face many atrocities such as rape, eve-teasing, beating, domestic violence, dowry death etc. All this happens because of social mentality attached with females. That’s why their participation is quite less. Although there are many societies where females are greatly respected and no atrocities are committed against them. Their participation is more in public sphere and they take part in every sphere of life.

In this way, everything depends upon society that how it perceives females. If they are given higher status and will not be considered an object, society will surely do progress. But if everything happens opposite to it, society will not do progress. In this say we can say that a ‘Woman is not born, she is made’.

Question 3.
Is gender inequality raising doubt on India as a democratic society?
Answer:
India is a democratic country in which all the citizens enjoy many rights without any discrimination. One of our fundamental rights is that there exists equality in our country which means that all will be equally treated irrespective of their caste, colour, race, gender etc. But if we look at the actual condition, there is no equality. Discrimination takes place in many spheres especially there exists gender inequality everywhere. We can observe the existence of gender inequality in different spheres and this raises doubts on having a democratic society in our country. We can see many examples of this such as:

1. Females don’t have much participation in the decision making process of our coountry. In rural and even in ifflban societies, females cannot do anything of their own. They do whatever their family wants.

2. Whenever there is a question of caste, kinship or religion, females are victimised. If we look carefully we can say that females are the prisoners of patriarchy. Whenever she is compared with a male, she is always discriminated which is against the spirit of democracy.

3. Females are doing government as well as private jobs. Yet in government sector, they both get same pay for same job but this is not the case in private sector. In private sector, females are given less pay and they are greatly exploited which is actually against our basic rights.

4. Decreasing sex ratio also depicts about gender discrimination. Females are used as a target. In political sector, their participation is not given much importance.

5. The Indian Constitution has given equal rights to females and many laws have been made to give them share in their father’s property. But if she demands her share of property from her brother, she is often criticized and the issue goes to the court.

6. After looking at these examples, we can say that a question can be raised against having a democractic society in India. Unless we make sure of political, social and economic equality, we cannot call India a democratic country in a true sense.

Question 4.
Describe some important features of gender discrimination in political sphere of India.
Answer:
If we look at the Indian politics, we can find many examples of gender discrimination over’here. Some of them are given below:

1. Women participation in the Indian politics is quite low. If we look at the first Lok Sabha elected in 1952 and till 16th Lok Sabha elected in 2014, we can clearly see that their participation is quite low. In the first Lok Sabha, only 22 women members were elected which was around 5%. But in 16th Lok Sabha in 2014, this number rose to 66 which comes around 12.2.%. This clearly shows their less participation in Lok Sabha. Rest will be cleared by the following table:
S.No. Year Number of Women M.P.s Percentage of Women M.P.s

S.No.	Year	Number of Women M.P.s	Percentage of Women M.P.s
1.	1951-52	22	4.5%
2.	1957	22	4.45%
3.	1962	31	6.28%
4.	1967	29	5.58%
5.	1971	28	5.41%
6.	1977	19	3.51%
7.	1980	28	5.29%
8.	1984	43	7.95%
9.	1989	29	5.48%
10.	1991	39	7.30%
11.	1996	40	7.37%
12.	1998	43	7.92%
13.	1999	49	9.02%
14.	2004	45	8.29%
15.	2009	59	10.87%
16.	2014	66	12.15%

This table clearly shows us the existence of gender discrimination in this sector.

2. Political parties are also not in favour of more participation of women in public life. Maybe the reason for this is our society which is patriarchal and males are not ready to obey the orders given by a female. A bill was introduced in our Parliament to keep one-third of the total seats reserved for women in the elected legislative bodies but is yet to get passed after so many years. This clearly shows how the process of gender discrimination is continuing in public life.

3. It is generally seen that maybe a female becomes one of the important leaders of a party but her participation in the decision-making process is quite less. They are made head of the women wing of the party to manage female related issues. This is also one of the examples of gender discrimination in political parties.

4. There are three levels of government in our country. The central government, state government and local self-government. At the level of local self-government, one-third of the seats are kept reserved for women. But actually, every type of work is done by their husbands. There are very few females who actually try to develop their areas. Here, the major issue comes in front that the women participation in public life and decision-making process is quite less. They cannot openly express themselves and consequently move away from the process of development.

Question 5.
How gender discrimination is a constraint to inclusive growth?
Answer:
There is no denying the fact that gender discrimination is a constraint or an obstacle in the way of inclusive growth. Our society depends upon the mutual co-operation of both the sexes and they are male and female. To run society and for its continuation, their co-operation is required. In the absence of one, society neither can run nor can it continue. Gender discrimination and inclusive growth can be judged on certain aspects such as:

1. During ancient times, division of labour was based on sex. Males arranged for the food and females managed the household, and children. Just because of this cooperation society continued in a better way.

2. In present age, cooperation of both the sexes is very much necessary for inclusive growth because if they will not cooperate, a home cannot develop. In this situation, the development of society is a distant reality.

3. It has been said that the half of world’s population belongs to females. If half of the total population will not be made a part of the development process and will be kept under the four walls of home, income of that society will remain half. It will not be able to fulfill its needs. But if that half population will take part in increasing income of society, then definitely, there will a progress of family, society and country.

Here we can take examples of Indian society and western societies. There is a great deal of gender discrimination in Indian society. That’s why females are unable to use their basic rights* So, they have to spend the whole of their life in the four walls of their house. They are unable to take part in the economic and political field and that’s why there is no all round development of the country. On contrary to this, if we look at western societies, female participation in every field is much more than our society.

They take part in the economic field, take education and earn money which helps in the all-inclusive growth of family, society and country. Just after comparing both societies, we can clearly see the difference. More the gender discrimination, less the growth and less the gender discrimination, more the growth. In this way, we can say that gender discrimination is a constraint in the way of inclusive growth.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 8 Interest and Pressure Groups Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 8 Interest and Pressure Groups

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the Meaning and Definitions of Pressure Groups. Explain the differences between Pressure Groups and Political Parties.
Or
Distinguish between Pressure Groups and Political Parties.
Answer:
In modern democratic states, not the whole of a country’s policies is absorbed within political parties. There are certain other organised groups which endeavour to influence the course of public servants in order to achieve these objectives. These groups are generally known as pressure groups.

Carl J. Fredrick has described pressure groups as ‘the living public behind the parties’. There was a time when pressure groups were considered a bad force and hence they were hated. But now the position has changed. In modern age these groups are considered a necessary evil and the study of pressure groups occupies a very important place in modern political system, whether western or non-western. The forms of their existence and working constitute the criteria of classifying contemporary political regimes.

Meaning of Pressure Groups:
In simple terms, a pressure group is an association of people having common interest and tries to achieve its object by influencing the government. In the words of Hitchner and Harbold the term pressure groups is employed to describe any collection of persons with common objectives that seeks their realisation through political action to influence public policy. Still more simply, an interest group is a set of people that want something from government.

According to M.G. Gupta, “Pressure groups may be defined as a medium through which people with common interest may endeavour to affect the course of public affairs.” In this sense, any social group which seeks to influence the behaviour of political affairs both administrative and legislative, without attempting to gain formal control of government, would be a pressure group. It uses the means and persuasive powers to obtain political decisions without having or seeking the power to make them.

According to Robert A. Dahl, “Any association that tries to secure from the state policies favourable to its members or followers is an interest group.”

According to B.K. Gokhle, “Pressure groups are private associations formed to influence public policy. The aim of these groups is to uphold their interests by trying to influence the government.”

H. Zeigler has defined pressure group as “an organised aggregate which seeks to influence the context of governmental decision without attempting to place its members in formal governmental capacities.”

According to Almond and Powell, “By interest group we mean a group of individuals who are linked by particular bounds of concern or advantage, and who have some awareness of their bonds. The structure of interest group may be organised to include continuing role performance by all members of the group or it may reflect only occasional and intermittent awareness of the group interest on the part of individuals.” V.O. Key has defined pressure groups in a restricted sense as “private associations formed to influence public policy.”

On the basis of the above definitions of pressure groups we can say that pressure groups like the political parties don’t influence the electorate on the basis of certain programmes. They are concerned with some special interests. They are neither political organisations nor they put up candidates for election. They simply influence the policies of the government to achieve some special purposes. A special interest is at the root of the formation of a pressure group. There can be no group unless there is a special interest which forces the individuals to actively resort to political means in order to improve or define their positions, against another.

Differences between Pressure Groups and Political Parties:
There are certain similarities and dissimilarities between pressure groups and political parties. Political parties and pressure groups resemble each other in a way that both seek to realise their objectives by influencing the decision-making agencies.
However, a striking difference exists between the pressure groups and political parties. Following are the main differences between political parties and pressure groups:

1. A political party is generally a much larger oganisation than the pressure groups. The parties seek to win the active support of millions of voters whereas pressure groups are very rarely supported by more than a small minority of people i.e. by those who have some common interest.

2. Political parties have policies on a wide range of issues, whereas pressure groups’ programme is limited and it deals with specific purposes.

3. According to Hitchner and Levine, the fundamental difference is that a political party submits its claims periodically to the electorate and is willing to assume responsibility for the operation of a government whereas an interest group does not.

4. A party is a full-fledged political organisation and plays politics by profession whereas pressure groups become political organisation for a particular purpose only to play politics for the sake of expediency.

5. A party wants to assume direct responsibility for the implementation of policies by seeking to monopolise or share with other parties position of a political power. But a pressure group is interested only in shaping public policy in relation to its common aims.

6. In many cases pressure groups are limited to a geographical area and have a membership restricted to a particular social group or economic group whereas a party strives for nation-wide support from all citizens.

7. Membership of political parties is exclusive. One citizen can become a member of only one party, whereas one citizen can become a member of more than one pressure groups.

8. Political parties are active both within and outside the legislature whereas pressure groups are active only outside the legislature.

9. Main aim of the party is always to gain control of the government whereas primary aim of the pressure group is to achieve particular ends consonant with its own primary interest.

10. A political party aggregates interest in the desire to gather broad support, but pressure group does not aggregate interests.

Question 2.
Define Pressure Group and explain its main characteristics.
Answer:
Meaning and Definition of Pressure Groups
In modern democratic states, not the whole of a country’s policies is absorbed within political parties. There are certain other organised groups which endeavour to influence the course of public servants in order to achieve these objectives. These groups are generally known as pressure groups.

Carl J. Fredrick has described pressure groups as ‘the living public behind the parties’. There was a time when pressure groups were considered a bad force and hence they were hated. But now the position has changed. In modern age these groups are considered a necessary evil and the study of pressure groups occupies a very important place in modern political system, whether western or non-western. The forms of their existence and working constitute the criteria of classifying contemporary political regimes.

Meaning of Pressure Groups:
In simple terms, a pressure group is an association of people having common interest and tries to achieve its object by influencing the government. In the words of Hitchner and Harbold the term pressure groups is employed to describe any collection of persons with common objectives that seeks their realisation through political action to influence public policy. Still more simply, an interest group is a set of people that want something from government.

According to M.G. Gupta, “Pressure groups may be defined as a medium through which people with common interest may endeavour to affect the course of public affairs.” In this sense, any social group which seeks to influence the behaviour of political affairs both administrative and legislative, without attempting to gain formal control of government, would be a pressure group. It uses the means and persuasive powers to obtain political decisions without having or seeking the power to make them.

According to Robert A. Dahl, “Any association that tries to secure from the state policies favourable to its members or followers is an interest group.”

According to B.K. Gokhle, “Pressure groups are private associations formed to influence public policy. The aim of these groups is to uphold their interests by trying to influence the government.”

H. Zeigler has defined pressure group as “an organised aggregate which seeks to influence the context of governmental decision without attempting to place its members in formal governmental capacities.”

According to Almond and Powell, “By interest group we mean a group of individuals who are linked by particular bounds of concern or advantage, and who have some awareness of their bonds. The structure of interest group may be organised to include continuing role performance by all members of the group or it may reflect only occasional and intermittent awareness of the group interest on the part of individuals.” V.O. Key has defined pressure groups in a restricted sense as “private associations formed to influence public policy.”

On the basis of the above definitions of pressure groups we can say that pressure groups like the political parties don’t influence the electorate on the basis of certain programmes. They are concerned with some special interests. They are neither political organisations nor they put up candidates for election. They simply influence the policies of the government to achieve some special purposes. A special interest is at the root of the formation of a pressure group. There can be no group unless there is a special interest which forces the individuals to actively resort to political means in order to improve or define their positions, against another.

Differences between Pressure Groups and Political Parties:
There are certain similarities and dissimilarities between pressure groups and political parties. Political parties and pressure groups resemble each other in a way that both seek to realise their objectives by influencing the decision-making agencies.
However, a striking difference exists between the pressure groups and political parties. Following are the main differences between political parties and pressure groups:

1. A political party is generally a much larger oganisation than the pressure groups. The parties seek to win the active support of millions of voters whereas pressure groups are very rarely supported by more than a small minority of people i.e. by those who have some common interest.

2. Political parties have policies on a wide range of issues, whereas pressure groups’ programme is limited and it deals with specific purposes.

3. According to Hitchner and Levine, the fundamental difference is that a political party submits its claims periodically to the electorate and is willing to assume responsibility for the operation of a government whereas an interest group does not.

4. A party is a full-fledged political organisation and plays politics by profession whereas pressure groups become political organisation for a particular purpose only to play politics for the sake of expediency.

5. A party wants to assume direct responsibility for the implementation of policies by seeking to monopolise or share with other parties position of a political power. But a pressure group is interested only in shaping public policy in relation to its common aims.

6. In many cases pressure groups are limited to a geographical area and have a membership restricted to a particular social group or economic group whereas a party strives for nation-wide support from all citizens.

7. Membership of political parties is exclusive. One citizen can become a member of only one party, whereas one citizen can become a member of more than one pressure groups.

8. Political parties are active both within and outside the legislature whereas pressure groups are active only outside the legislature.

9. Main aim of the party is always to gain control of the government whereas primary aim of the pressure group is to achieve particular ends consonant with its own primary interest.

10. A political party aggregates interest in the desire to gather broad support, but pressure group does not aggregate interests.

Characteristics of Pressure Groups:
The characteristic features can be summed up as under:

1. Formal Organization:
Formal organization is essential for a pressure group. Pressure groups are the groups of people who are formally organised to protect their common interest.

2. Universality:
The pressure groups are found in all the countries. These groups include business, labour, farm co-operative, church and other professional groups. It is generally believed that social, religious and caste groups are found only in underdeveloped countries of the world.

3. Play the Role of ‘Hide and Seek’ in Politics:
That is, they do not want to show their political character. They are afraid of coming into politics to have their own part openly and try to hide their political character by the logic of their being non-political entities. It may be pointed out that the role of pressure groups dwindles between the poles of full politicisation like that of political parties and also non-politicisation like that of economic or cultural organisations.

4. Self-interest:
The Root of Formation of a Pressure Group. There can’t be any group which has got no self-interest. Individuals having commonness in interest come together to form a group to fight for their interests.

5. Differ from Political Parties:
A political party is a bigger association and plays an open role in the politics of a state but a pressure group has a limited sphere and plays its role in the background. Both have, however, a political complexion. While a political party plays the game of politics by virtue of its profession, a pressure group does so for the sake of expediency.

6. Voluntary Membership:
The membership of a pressure group depends on the will of a person and nobody can be compelled to become a member of a pressure group. For example, all college lecturers are not members of the College Teachers Union. Any member can leave the membership of the pressure group whenever he desires so.

7. Lack of Responsibility: Pressure groups are not responsible to the people for their actions and programmes.

8. Extra-Constitutional: Pressure groups do not enjoy constitutional status. But still they play an important role in the politics of the country.

Question 3.
Discuss the functions of Interest and Pressure Groups.
Or
Describe the methods of the working of Pressure Groups.
Answer:
Introduction. According to Henry A. Turner: “Individual interest groups generally function in a pragmatic and opportunistic fashion, using any method or technique which they believe will serve their purpose effectively. Undoubtedly most pressure groups’ activity is the criterion, what action will produce the maximum desired result with the minimum expenditure of time and resources ? The techniques and tactics which any particular group employs will be determined largely by such factors as size and geographic distribution of the cohesion of membership, financial resources, prestige, position of the organisation, quality of leadership and staff, and relation with the

political parties and other organised groups.”
Hitchner and Levine wrote of the many strategies employed by interest groups to achieve their goals. Two are of primary importance: “First direct influence on governmental organs and officials, and second indirect influence on them through individuals, political parties and public opinion. The strategies and techniques used by any group are determined by the nature of its membership, its goals and its means as well as by the character of the government it seeks to influence. This type of party system and the general political climate also affect the degree to which interest group demands are made openly and the degree to which they are accommodated.” To achieve their aims pressure groups use many meAnswer: Most important techniques or means which are used by Pressure Groups are as follows:

1. Election:
Pressure groups safeguard their interest through election. According to Dr. Johri, to interest’ groups, elections are an object of primary concern as they afford them an opportunity of pushing their ‘favoured’ men into the agencies of administrative mechanism. Pressure groups use elections for desired aims. The process of elections begins with nominations. Pressure groups use all means to get tickets for their own candidates. They finance political parties and thereby secure labels for their favoured candidates. Pressure groups indirectly or directly participate in elections to get their men elected.

2. Propaganda and Means of Communications:
Pressure groups use different means of propaganda and communication to get the goodwill of public opinion and to mould the administration in their own favour. For propaganda purposes they use radio, press and T.V. etc.
Pressure groups consider it more important to influence public opinion than the government. In order to influence public opinion they establish link with the masses. Pressure groups know very well that in a democratic system public opinion is everything.

3. Lobbying:
Lobbying is another important technique which is used by pressure groups to protect their interests. Pressure and interest groups directly contact the legislators and make an attempt to influence them, so that such laws are passed that protect and promote their interest. Pressure groups adopt all means to keep control over the legislative chamber. According to Henry W. Ehrmann, “The people of a culturally and also politically fragmented society choose their legislators in proportion that leads to the protection of local, instead of national interests with the result that standing committees of the legislative assembly are colonised by powerful specific interests in many respects.”

4. Influence the Executive:
Pressure groups adopt all means to influence the executive departments for the reason that public policy is formulated by them whereby national administration is carried. Holtzmann says: “An executive unit that serves to regulate part of the general public needs the co-operation of those who are the recipients of its activities. As active organised units representing such recipient, interest groups have much to offer to an administration of political executive.

They can provide an alternative pipeline of information and ideas to that of the administrative bureaucracy. They furnish special staff services for which the agency has neither the appropriations nor the skills or that it considers too sensitive politically to undertake. They can feedback to the administration the feelings and discontent of those most affected by its agency. Within the administrative frame of reference, therefore, they are valuable adjuncts of the leadership and useful allies for its agency.”

5. Political Parties:
Pressure groups also use the media of political parties. As Prof. Young writes, an influence in party circles is sought and sometimes achieved, in many ways by contribution to the campaign, by grants of publicity or office space by loans of skilled personnel to candidates or parties. Some avowed spokesman of large interest groups stand for office as candidates in their own right.

6. Strike:
Many times pressure groups adopt the method of strike to achieve their objectives. According to Dr. Johri, strike is the commonest pressure tactic in the hands of one party to coerce the other to concede its demands. In the words of Bondurant, “The strike is commonly used to effect economic pressure, and is intended to hurt business, or to strain relationships so that normal functions are brought to a halt, or at least inhibited. Normal functioning cannot be resumed until policy changes are instituted. The process of strikes or passive resistance in its most common forms amounts to the intensification of pressure or shifting or the points of attack until a settlement is reached through capitulation or through compromise.”

7. Bandh and Demonstration:
To achieve their aims pressure groups also used bandhs and demonstrations. Literally bandh means closure. The instances of bandhs illustrate that these are mischievous divices of enacting managed riots involving mob-violence and mob manipulation. According to Eugene Methvin, “The entire manifestation of this pernicious technique fits well in the strategy of the fascists and ‘progressives’ who strive to stage a violent revolution through various stages.” By these means pressure groups on one hand try to create mass upheaval and on the other hand try to influence public opinion in their favour.

8. By giving High Jobs:
Big businessmen and industrialists like Tata, Birla, Dalmia and Modi have their educational institutions. Children and relatives of ministers, legislators and high government officers work in these institutions. Sometimes government officers are lured by the invitation that they will be given jobs in their institutions after retirement. These allurements have a great effect on the government officers.

9. Conferences and Seminars:
Many powerful pressure groups arrange conferences, seminars, debates, etc. from time to time. In these conferences legislators and administrators are invited and by these means pressure groups try to influence the public as well as the government.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by a Pressure Group?
Or
What do you mean by a Pressure Group?
Answer:
A Pressure Group is an association of people having common interest and tries to achieve its objective by influencing the government. They are neither political organisations nor they put up candidates for election. They simply influence the policies of the government to achieve some special purpose. A special interest is the root of the formation of a pressure group. There can be no group unless there is a special interest which forces the individuals to actively resort to political means in order to improve or define their position one against another.

Question 2.
Distinguish between Pressure Group and Interest Group.
Or
Write the difference between Interest Groups and Pressure Groups.
Answer:
An interest group is an association of people having a mutual concern. But they become in turn a pressure group as they seek government aid in accomplishing what is advantageous to them. In other words, an interest group is a formal organisation of people who share one or more common aims and when they start influencing the formation and administration of public policy by government, they become pressure groups. That is when industrial, commercial, professional or other sections of the community, represented by societies, trade unions, or professional associations try to influence the legislature to promote, withdraw, or repeal legislation, they are commonly known as pressure groups.

Question 3.
Write any four characteristics of Pressure Groups.
Answer:
1. Universality:
The pressure groups are found in all the sectors. These groups include business, labour, farm, co-operative, church and other professional groups.

2. Play the Role of Hide and Seek in Politics:
That is they do not want to show their political character. They are afraid of coming into politics to have their own part openly and try to hide their political character by the logic of their being non-political entities.

3. Self-interest:
The Root of Formation of Pressure Group. There can’t be any group which has got no self-interest. Individuals having commonness in interest come together to form a group to fight for their interests.

4. The membership of a pressure group depends on the will of a person and no body can be compelled to become a member of a pressure group.

Question 4.
Write down any four differences between pressure groups and political parties.
Or
Give four differences between pressure groups and political parties.
Answer:
1. A political party is generally a much larger organisation than a pressure group. The parties seek to win the active support of millions of voters, whereas pressure groups are very rarely supported by more than a small minority of people i.e., by those who have some common interest.

2. Political parties have policies on a wide range of issues, whereas pressure groups’ programme is limited and it deals with specific purpose.

3. According to Hitchner and Levine, the fundamental difference is that a political party submits its claims periodically to the electorate and is willing to assume responsibility for the operation of a government whereas an interest group does not.

4. Membership of political parties is exclusive. One citizen can become a member of only one party, whereas one citizen can become a member of more than one pressure group.

Question 5.
What are Professional Pressure Groups?
Answer:
Professional pressure groups are those which are formed by the employees of a particular occupation or profession for the protection of their interests. Almost all the people of different professions have formed their organisations to represent their interest. Professional pressure groups include the following main pressure groups All India Bar Association, All India Medical Council, All India Railway Men’s Association, All India Postal and Telegraph Workers’ Union, All India Federation of University and College Teachers etc.

Question 6.
Write down any four methods of working of pressure groups.
Or
Describe the four methods of working used by Pressure Groups.
Answer:
1. Election:
Pressure groups safeguard their interest through election. Pressure groups use all means to get tickets for their own candidates. They finance political parties and thereby secure labels for the favoured candidates. Pressure groups indirectly or directly participate in elections to get their men elected.

2. Propaganda and Means of Communications:
Pressure groups use different means of propaganda and communication to get the goodwill of public opinion and to mould the administration in their own favour. For propaganda purposes they use radio, press and T.V. etc.

3. Bandh and Demonstrations:
To achieve their aims, pressure groups use bandhs and demonstrations. By these means pressure groups on the one hand try to create mass upheaval and on the other hand try to influe ice public opinion in their favour.

4. Lobbying is another important tecnique which is used by pressure groups to protect their interest.

Question 7.
What is meant by Lobbying?
Or
What do you mean by Lobbying?
Answer:
Lobbying is an important technique which is used by pressure groups to protect their interests. Pressure groups try to influence the government officials by sending delegation, meeting legislators and ministers and by getting signatures of a large, number of voters in their favour. Pressure groups resort to many extra-constitutional devices in order to influence legislators, so that such laws are passed that protect and promote their interests. Pressure groups adopt all means to keep control over the legislative chamber.

Question 8.
Write any four functions of Pressure Groups.
Answer:
Following are the important functions of pressure groups:
1. Participation in Election:
Major pressure groups participate in elections indirectly and affect the election results. They try to field those candidates who support their ideologies and then work for their success.

2. Lobbying:
The pressure groups depend upon lobbying to affect government policies and press the legislators to vote in favour of a bill or vote against it.

3. To Influence the Public Opinion:
The pressure groups deem it more important to influence public opinion than to influence the government. So they maintain proper contacts with the public to win their support.

4. To achieve their aims pressure groups also use bandhs and demonstrations.

Question 9.
What are the Caste Pressure Groups?
Answer:
Caste pressure groups are present in India. Their object is to promote the interests of the people of their caste. Prominent Caste groups are Marwari Association, Vaish Maha Sabha, Harijan Sewak Sangh, Jat Sabha etc.

Question 10.
Write down any four categories of Pressure Groups.
Or
Write down any three types of Pressure Groups.
Answer:
1. Trade Unions:
Trade Unions are voluntary organisations of workers formed to promote and protect their interests by collective actions. At present there are five Trade Unions in India.

2. Communal and Religious Interest Groups:
It includes Republican Dal, Hindu Maha Sabha, Sanatan Dharm Sabha, All India Conference of the Christians and Association of Parsees.

3. Professional Groups: A large number of professional groups are found in India.

4. Associational Groups: Associational Groups are those that have a particular aim or set of aims.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of Pressure Group.
Answer:
A Pressure Group is an association of people having common interest and tries to achieve its objective by influencing the government. They are neither political organisations nor they put up candidate for election. They simply influence the policies of the government to achieve some special purpose. A special interest is the root of the formation of a pressure group.

Question 2.
Give two definitions of Pressure Groups.
Answer:
1. H. Zeigler has defined a pressure group as “An organised aggregate which seeks to influence in the context of government decision without attempting to place its members in formal governmental capacities.”

2. According to H.C. Dhillon, “A pressure group has been defined as an organised aggregate which seeks to influence the context of the government decision without attempting to place its members in formal government capacities.”

Question 3.
Write any two characteristics of Pressure Groups.
Answer:
1. Universality:
The pressure groups are found in all the sectors. These groups include business, labour, farm, co-operative, church and other professional groups.

2. Play the Role of Hide and Seek in Politics:
That is they do not want to show their political character. They are afraid of coming into politics to play their own part openly and try to hide their political character by the logic of their being non-political entities.

Question 4.
Write down any two differences in Political Parties and Pressure Groups.
Answer:
1. A political party is generally a much larger organisation than a pressure group. The parties seek to win the active support of millions of voters, whereas pressure groups are very rarely supported by more than a small minority of people i.e., by those who have some common interest.

2. Political parties have policies on a wide range of issues, whereas pressure groups’ programme is limited and it deals with a specific purpose.

Question 5.
Describe any two methods of the working of Pressure Groups.
Answer:
1. Election:
Pressure groups safeguard their interest through election. Pressure groups use all means to get tickets for their own candidates. They finance political parties and thereby secure labels for the favoured candidates. Pressure groups indirectly or directly participate in elections to get their men elected.

2. Propaganda and Means of Communication:
Pressure groups use different means of propaganda and communication to get the goodwill of public opinion and to mould the administration in their own favour. For propaganda purposes they use radio, press and T.V. etc.

Question 6.
What is meant by Lobbying?
Answer:
Lobbying is an important technique which is used by pressure groups to protect their interests. Pressure groups try to influence the government officials by sending delegation, meeting legislators and ministers and by getting signatures of a large number of voters in their favour. .

Question 7.
Write any two functions of pressure groups.
Answer:
Following are the important functions of pressure groups:
1. Participation in Election:
Major pressure groups participate in elections indirectly and affect the election results. They try to field those candidates who support their ideologies and then work for their success.

2. Lobbying:
The pressure groups depend upon lobbying to affect government policies and press the legislators to vote in favour of a bill or vote against it.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by Pressure Groups?
Answer:
Generally speaking, pressure groups are those groups which are related to special interests of the people.

Question 2.
Write down any one definition of Pressure Groups.
Answer:
According to C.H. Dhillon, “In the simplest term, an interest group is an association of people having a mutual concern. They become in turn a pressure group as they seek government aid in accomplishing what is advantageous to them.”

Question 3.
Write down any one feature of Pressure Groups.
Answer:
Formal Organisation. The first feature of the pressure groups is that they are the groups of people. They have a- formal organisation.

Question 4.
Write down any one method adopted by interest groups in India to pressurise the government.
Answer:
The interest groups safeguard their interests by getting in touch with Cabinet, Members of Parliament and high officials.

Question 5.
Mention names of any two important professional pressure groups.
Answer:

• All India Railways Employees’ Federation.
• All India Medical Council.

Question 6.
Name any two pressure groups organised in India.
Answer:

• Akhil Bhartiya Vidyarthi Parishad.
• All India Bank Employees’ Federation.

Fill in The Blanks

1. Pressure groups were formed first of all in …………………. .
Answer:
U.S.A.

2. Pressure groups emerged in India in …………………. .
Answer:
1935

3. Akhil Bharatiya Kisan Sabha was founded in …………………. .
Answer:
1936

4. Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh is …………………. organization.
Answer:
labour

5. Pressure group is directly linked to …………………. .
Answer:
politics.

True or False Statement

1. Lobbying is legally allowed in United States of America.
Answer:
True

2. Pressure groups are those groups which are related with the masses.
Answer:
False

3. Pressure groups are having formal organisation.
Answer:
True

4. Maximum pressure groups exist in India.
Answer:
False

5. Pressure groups safeguard their interests by getting in touch with Cabinet, Members of parliament and high officials.
Answer:
True

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Pressure groups:
(a) Are Political Parties
(b) Aim to control the government
(c) Contest election
(d) Influence the government policies.
Answer:
(d) Influence the government policies.

Question 2.
Which of the following is not a technique of pressure groups?
(a) Lobbying
(b) Propaganda
(c) Influence the executive
(d) Influence the fashion.
Answer:
(d) Influence the fashion.

Question 3.
Which of the following is not the function of pressure groups?
(a) To safeguard special interest
(b) To fight elections
(c) To pressurize the government
(d) To provide adequate information to the government.
Answer:
(b) To fight elections

Question 4.
The basis of pressure groups is:
(a) Common Culture
(b) Common Language
(c) Common Interest
(d) Common Religion.
Answer:
(c) Common Interest

Question 5.
Characteristic of pressure groups is:
(a) Formal organisation
(b) Universality
(c) Voluntary Membership
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 5 Class Inequalities Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 5 Class Inequalities

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of these is not a feature of class?
(a) Achieved status
(b) Openness
(c) Based on birth
(d) High-low status of classes.
Answer:
(c) Based on birth

2. Which of these is the feature of class?
(a) Feeling of high-low
(b) Social Mobility
(c) Development of sub-classes
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

3. Name the process in which people get specific social status on different bases:
(a) Caste system
(b) Class system
(c) Community development
(d) Social system
Answer:
(b) Class system

4. What is the impact of class system on society?
(а) Caste system is weakening
(b) People of lower castes moving in upward direction
(c) People get chance to show their ability
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

5. What is the difference between caste and class?
(a) Caste is based on birth but class is based on ability
(b) One can change his class but not caste
(c) There are many restrictions in caste but not in class
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

6. Who gave the theory of class struggle?
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Max Weber
(c) Right
(d) Warner
Answer:
(a) Karl Marx

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Membership of class is based on individual ……………..
Answer:
ability

2. ……………… gave the theory of class struggle.
Answer:
Karl Marx

3. According to Marx, there are ………………. classes in the world.
Answer:
two

4. …………………. class is known as Bourgouisie.
Answer:
Capitalist

5. ……………… class is known as Proletariat.
Answer:
Labour

True/False:

1. Class consciousness exists in all the classes.
Answer:
True

2. Status in class is achieved.
Answer:
True

3. Income, occupation, wealth and education determine class of an individual.
Answer:
True

4. According to Weber, wealth, power and authority are the bases, of inequality.
Answer:
True

5. Warner studied the class structure of America.
Answer:
True

One Word/One Line Questions Answers:

Question 1.
On what the membership of class is based?
Answer:
Membership of class is based on individual ability.

Question 2.
Presently what are the bases of class?
Answer:
Education, wealth, occupation, kinship etc.

Question 3.
Who gave the theory of class struggle?
Answer:
Karl Max.

Question 4.
On the basis of wealth, in how many classes can people be divided?
Answer:
Three classes—upper class, middle class and lower class.

Question 5.
Name the major classes existing in villages.
Answer:
In villages, we can find Landlord class, peasant class, labourer class etc.

Question 6.
What is meant by class system?
Answer:
When many classes are formed in society, on many bases, it is known as class system.

Question 7.
What type of group is class?
Answer:
Class is an open group whose membership is based on individual ability.

Question 8.
What type of relations are there in class?
Answer:
Formal, temporary and limited relations are there in class.

Question 9.
According to Marx, what is the base of class?
Answer:
According to Marx, the base of class is economic or wealth.

Question 10.
According to Marx, how many types of classes are there in every society?
Answer:
According to Marx, there are two types of classes in every society.

Question 11.
According to Weber, what are the bases of inequality?
Answer:
According to Weber, wealth, power and position are the bases of inequality.

Question 12. What is Bourgeoisie?
Answer:
The class which owns all the means of production is known as Bourgeoisie.

Question 13.
What is Proletariat?
Answer:
That class which does not own any means of production and has nothing to sell except labour is known as Proletariat.

Question 14.
What is classless society?
Answer:
That society in which there is no class in known as classless society.

Question 15.
Give one difference between caste and class.
Answer:
Caste is based on birth but class is based on individual ability.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you mean by class?
Answer:
In society, different persons get specific social status and the group with a specific social status is -known as class. Members of each class are conscious about their status and they never let someone to enter another member in it very easily.

Question 2. Give two features of class.
Answer:

• Members of each class have same social status such as members of rich class get high status in society.
• Classes are formed on different bases such as education, occupation, wealth, kinship, politics, power etc.

Question 3.
Give any three impacts of class systepi.
Answer:

• With class system, the ties of casts system.have loosened up.
• With class system, people of lower castes have reached high positions in society.
• One gets a chance to show his individual ability in class system.

Question 4.
What is social mobility?
Answer:
There are many classes in society in which one needs to achieve his status. When one achieves his status, his class changes automatically. This process of moving from one class to another is known as social mobility.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Meaning of class system.
Answer:
Class is a group of people which are equal to each other and every class has its own status in society. According to this, every member of class has some responsibilities, rights and powers. Class consciousness is the main necessity of class. Person in class thinks about others as higher or lower than him.

Question 2. Two characteristics of class system.
Or
Describe characteristics of social class.
Answer:

• Class consciousness. Every class is conscious about the fact that its status or prestige is higher than the other class. It means person knows about higher, lower or equal status.
• Restricted social contracts. In class system people like to establish close contacts with the members of their own class and have very limited relations with members of other class.

Question 3.
Opefiness.
Or
Open System.
Answer:
In class system, person can change his position on the basis of his individual ability. It means that he can become rich from poor with great abilities and can become poor from rich with no ability. Meaning of openness is that every one will get equal opportunities to move in higher class. He can use his individual abilities for this.

Question 4.
Determinants of social class given by Bierstdt.
Answer:

• Property, money and income.
• Blood relation group of family.
• Place of living, religion, education, occupation and time of living.

Question 5.
Wealth and income—Determinants of social class.
Answer:
Persons need money to become members of higher class in society. But person cannot achieve higher status himself but his next generation will definitely get higher status in society. With income also person gets higher status in society. But here one thing is important that what is the source of income of person.

Question 6.
Status Symbol.
Answer:
In modern society, status symbols are very important for the determination of status of person. For example T.V., telephone, car, bunglow etc. determine the class status of a person. Except this clothes and jewellery of a person are also related with this.

Question 7.
Religion-Determinant of class system.
Answer:
Religion was of great importance in ancient Indian society. Person was getting status according to this. Even respect to a person was given on this basis. But in modern society, this is not the determinant of social class.

Question 8.
Differences in caste and class.
Answer:

• Membership in caste system is based upon birth and membership in class system is based on capabilities of a person.
• Occupation of a person is determined by birth. In class system, person is free to adopt any occupation of his liking.
• Membership of caste is ascribed but membership of class is achieved.
• Caste is a closed system but class is an open system.
• There are many restrictions in caste system but there is no restriction in class system.

Question 9.
Bases of Division of Class.
Answer:

• Family and kinship
• Property income and wealth
• Occupation
• Direction of place of living
• Education

Question 10.
Class-base of open stratification.
Answer:
Person in class system enters from one class to another class on the basis of his individual abilities. It means that he can change his class. He has the complete freedom to change his class. Individual abilities are considered as more important than the caste. That is why class is the base of open stratification.

Question 11.
Caste-Base of closed stratification.
Answer:
Membership of person, in caste system is related with his birth. He becomes a prisoner of that caste in which he was born. Even he cannot use his abilities completely. He neither has the independence to do any work nor he can establish relations with other castes. If he breaks the rule of caste, then caste throws him out of his caste. That is why caste is considered as the base of closed stratification.

Question 12.
On which bases can we differentiate between caste and class?
Answer:
One can differentiate between caste and class on following bases:

• On the basis of occupation.
• On the basis of membership.
• On the basis of birth.
• On the basis of restrictions
• On the basis of system.

Question 13.
Differentiate between caste and class on the basis of birth.
Answer:
Membership of a person in caste system is.based upon birth. Person is related with that caste for the whole life in which he was born. For example, a person, who was born in Kshatriya caste will remain Kshatriya for the whole life and he cannot change his membership.

Membership of a person in class system is based upon income, education, occupation, ability etc. Person can change his membership according to his wish. A person can relate himself to the higher caste with hard work. Membership of class is based upon ability. If the person does have ability and he neyer does any work then he can go from higher caste to lower caste. But if he does his work then he can change his position from lower caste to higher caste. In this way caste is based upon birth but class is based upon action.

Question 14.
Differentiate between caste and class on the basis of occupation.
Answer:
In the caste system occupation was determined by the birth of the person. It means that occupations were related with different castes. Person had to adopt the occupation of the caste in which he was born. He cannot change his occupation for his whole life. In this way he had to adopt the occupation of his caste even against his wish. Scope of selection of occupation in class system is very wide. It is the wish of the person to dhoose the occupation. He adopts that occupation in which either he is expert or which is more profitable. He can change his occupation at any time. In this way the selection of occupation depends upon the ability of the person.

Question 15.
Differentiate between caste and class on the basis of membership.
Answer:
Status of person in caste system is related with his caste. It means status is not achieved by him but is related with his birth. That is why the word ascribed is used for his status and that’s why stability was there in caste system. Status of person was determined by the status of the family. Status of person in class system is achieved. It means he has to achieve his position in society. That is why the person is hard working right from the start. Person can get higher or lower status in society with his ability. Birth is of no importance. Person’s ability and hard work are important in changing his position.

Question 16.
Class is an open system but caste is a closed system. Clarify.
Answer:
Caste is a closed system but class is an open system. Caste system is a close system of stratification because person has to live in its restrictions for the whole life. He can neither change his caste nor his occupation. Class system is an open group of stratification. Person has every type of independence in it. He can move forward in any area with hard work. He gets enough chances to change his position from lower to higher. Class is open for everyone. Person can become member of any class according to his ability, property and hardwork and can change his class many times in his life.

Question 17.
What is included in the interface of caste and class?
Answer:
Following things are included in the interface of caste and class:

• Caste is changing’into class.
• Caste is not changing into class but is restrenghtening.

Question 18.
Is caste changing?
Answer:
Many scholars are of the view that caste is changing. Now importance is given to wealth instead of caste. Policy of reservation in jobs for backward classes is being used by government. Now person can adopt any occupation of his choice. Inter-caste marriages are taking place. Many changes have come in the rules of feeding. Now elections are being fought in the name of caste. Many restrictions related to caste have been removed. After looking at this we can say that the caste is changing.

Question 19.
What is the result of stratification according to Marx?
Answer:
Marx was of the view that there are two classes in society. First one is the owner of means of production and other class is not the owner of means of production. On the basis of this ownership, owner class gets higher status and non-owner class gets lower status in society. Marx has given the name of capitalist class or Bourgouise to owner class and labourer class or proletariat is non-owner class. Capitalist class always exploits the labourer class and labourer class always struggles with capitalist class to get its rights. This is the result of stratification according to Marx.

Question 20.
Which type of relations are there in different classes?
Answer:
According to Marx the mutual relations pf classes are of inter-dependence and struggle. Capitalist and labourers both depend upon each other for their existence. Labourer class has to sell its labour to earn meal. It sells its labour to capitalist and depends upon capitalist to earn its meal. Capitalist gives the rent of his labour. For this capitalist also depends upon labourers because without labourers, he can neither produce any thing nor he can accumulate wealth. But struggle also goes on with dependency because labourer always struggles with capitalist to achieve his rights.

Question 21.
Which things are important in the theory of stratification of Marx?
Answer:

• First of all two types of classes exist in society. One class has all the means of production and other doesn’t have any means of production.
• According to Marx, stratification in society is being done on the basis of right over means of production. Class with all the means of production has the higher status in society and class without means of production has lower status in society.
• Nature and form of social stratification depends upon the system of production.
• According to Marx, history of human society is the history of class struggle. Class struggle exists in all the societies in one form or the other.

Question 22.
Class Struggle.
Answer:
Karl Marx has studied two classes in each society. According to him, there exist two classes in each society. One class is the exploitive class and other class is exploited class. There always exists conflict between them which Marx calls class struggle. Exploitive class is capitalist class which has all the means of production and with the help of which it suppresses the other classes. Second class is labour class which doesn’t have any means of production. To earn bread and butter, it needs to sell its labour. This class i.e. labour class is always exploited by the first class i.e. the capitalist class because of which struggle is always there between these two groups. This struggle is given the name of class struggle by Karl Marx.

Question 23.
Means of Production.
Answer:
Means of production are those means through which money is earned to live a happy life. A person uses means of production and production talent to produce material things and all these elements collectively form the production forces. Means of production are owned by the Capitalist. He becomes more rich with these means of production and he uses these means to suppress the labourers.

Question 24.
Social Mobility.
Answer:
Society is made up of human relations. Every person in society has its social position and this position depends upon some bases. This pqsition in some societies is based on birth and in some societies, it is based on action. Some changes are going on in the society. Change on the basis of birth is not possible. For example caste is based on birth and it cannot be changed. But occupations, functions and on the basis of money class can be changed. Change by any member of the society on the basis of his social status is known as social mobility.

Question 25.
Give two definitions of Mobility.
Answer:

1. According to Harton and Hunt, “Social mobility is meant by transition up or down in social status.”
2. According to Fitcher, “Social mobility is movement of persons, group or category from one social position or strata to another.”
3. According to Sorokin, “Mobility involves change in position that brings about new contact and stimulations. It may, therefore, be defined as special change involving new mental contact.”

Question 26.
Education-Indicator of Social Mobility.
Answer:
Education. Education is known as an important means of social mobility. It has been said that a person gets more success in life if he will get more education. Education improves the wrong functions done by his ancestors. It is believed that education should not be taken as a means of getting a job because education never goes directly towards higher mobility. Education improves the ability of a person to avail of available opportunities at that time. Education tells those ways which are necessary to adopt any occupation but it never provides the opportunities to use those ways.

Question 27.
Income-Indicator of Social Mobility.
Answer:
Income of a person is an important indicator of mobility. Income of a person plays an important role in bringing the status of a person high or low. Person with higher income will have higher status in society and the person with less income will have lower status in society. In this way, the way of income also brings popularity to a person in society. Income of a businessman will get respect in society, but the income of a prostitute and of a smuggler will be seen with great hatredness. Person changes his class, status, way of living with the increase in income and social mobility increases with this.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you mean by Class System? Write in detail.
Or
What is Class Explain its characteristics.
Answer:
The base of social stratification is class. Status of a person in class depends upon his role in class. Position of all the persons is not same in all the societies. Some type of inequality is always there in class and because of this inequality classes came into being. Especially because of westernization, industrialization, educational system, modernization etc. classes came into being in Jndia. Stratification in Western Societies is also based upon class system. Many classes also came into being in India like Teacher class, Business class, Doctor class etc.

Meaning and Definitions of Class:

Every society has been divided in classes and every class has different status in society. On the basis of status person’s status is high or low. In this way when different persons achieve special social status in society, then it is known as class system. Every class is economically different from the other. Different sociologists have given different views about class system which are given below:

1. According to Maclver, “A social class is any position of community marked off from the rest by Social Status.”
2. According to Morris Ginsberg, “A class is group of individuals who through common descent, similarity of occupation, wealth and education have come to have a similar mode of life, a similar stock of those ideas, feelings, attitudes . behaviours and who on any or all of these grounds meet the another on equal terms and regard themselves, with varying degrees of explicitness as belonging to one group.”
3. According to Gilbert, “A social class is a category of group of persons having a definite status in a society which permanently determines their relationships to other groups.”
4. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The fundamental attribute of social class is thus its local position of relative superiority or inferiority to other social classes.”
5. According to Lapire, “A social class is a culturally defined group that is accorded a particular position or status within the population as a whole.”
6. According to Maclver and Page, “A social class is any position of community marked off from the rest by social status.” .
7. According to Olsen, “In short, social classes are compared of actions with approximately similar amount of power, privilege and prestige and one or more status dimensions.”
8. According to Schumpeter, “A class is aware of its identity as a whole, sublimates itself as such, has its peculiar life and characteristic spirit.”
9. According to Raymond Arron, “Class is an economic and legal concept, when we relate it with social status, then it becomes a social concept.”
10. According to Lenski, “Aggregation of persons in a society who stand in a similar position with respect to some form of power, privilege or prestige.”

On the basis of given definitions we can say that social class is a class of many persons which has one specific status in a specific time. That is why they have some special power, rights and duties. Ability of an individual is important in class system. That is why every person wants to achieve higher status in society with hard work. Every society is divided in many classes. Status of a person is not definite in class system. There is some sort of mobility existing in his status. That is why it is known as open stratification. Person determines his class status himself. It is not based on birth.

Characteristics of Class:

1. Feeling of Superiority and Inferiority. Relations of. inferior and superior exist in class system. For example people of higher class think themselves as different and superior from lower class. Rich persons are coming in higher class and poor people are coming in lower class. Rich people have higher status in society and poor people live at different places. By looking at the residence of the person we can imagine about the class of the person.

2. Social Mobility. Class system is not definite for person. It keeps on changing. Man can achieve higher status with hard work and can go to lower status with wrong deeds. Every person wants to increase his prestige in society. That is why class system makes the person active. So in this way social mobility is there in class system. For example if a person, who is working as a clerk in any office, does a lot of hard work and passes the I.A.S. exam then his status and position will be completely changed. It means that class system has social mobility in which person can go from one place to another with his hard work and ability.

3. Openness. Openness exists in class system because in this every person is free to do anything. He is free to adopt any occupation. Any one can become the member of any class on the basis of his ability. Person from lower class can go to higher class with his hardwork. In this there is no value of birth of the person. Status of person depends upon his ability. A boy from rich family can become rich only if he has the property. If this property will finish then he can become poor. This class system gives opportunity to every one to move forward. In this way openness exists in class system.

4. Limited Social Relations. Social relations of a person are limited in class system. Persons of every class love to establish relations with the people of their own class. Every class wants to establish contacts with persons of their own class. They don’t like to keep contacts with the people of other castes.

5. Development of Sub-classes. We can divide class system into three parts from economic point of view and these are:

• Upper Class
• Middle Class
• Lower Class

These classes are again divided into sub-classes. For example we can see difference between rich people. Someone is billionaire and someone is millionaire. In the same way we can see sub-classes in middle class and lower class. In every class we can see sub-classes. In this way class is made up of sub-classes.

6. Different Bases. Classes are made on different basis. According to Karl Marx the main base of class system is economic. According to him there are two classes in society. First one is capitalist class and second is labour class. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, Maclver and Gilberg social base is important for class. Ginsberg and Lapire have accepted cultural base as the main base .of class system. In this way we can say that there is not a single base of class system but there are many bases of class system.

7. Identification of Class. External outlooly is important in class system. Sometimes just by external outlook we can imagine about the class of the person. In modern society big house, car, scooter, T.V., V.C.R., Fridge etc. indicate towards the position of the person. In this way external symbols tell us about class differences. Life Style of one class is almost same and their necessities are generally same.

8. Class Consciousness. Every member is completely conscious about his class status. That is why class consciousness is the main feature of class system. Class consciousness gives opportunity to move forward in life and this consciousness differentiates one group from the other. Behaviour of the person is also determined by this.

9. Mutual Dependence. All the classes of the society are mutually dependent because they are dependent upon each other. Higher class needs middle class to maintain its status and middle class needs lower class to maintain its status. So in this way all the classes depend upon each other to maintain their existence.

10. Class is an Open System. Class is an open system in which every class is open for every person. Any person can change his class with his efforts, hard work and ability and can go to lower class without doing any effort. Caste is not an obstacle in his way.

11. Hierarchial Order. In every society, many classes have different statuses. Order of position changes all the times and different classes are formed with this. Generally it has been seen that people of higher class are less in number and people of middle and lower classes are more in number. People of all the classes try to go into higher class with their ability and hard work.

12. Status of Class. There are some similarities in the status of every class. Because of these similarities every person of every class gets equal opportunity to do progress in life. Person’s education, place of living, ways of living and other things are according to his status.

Question 2.
Explain different bases of class distribution.
Or
Explain income and occupation as a determinant of class.
Or
Explain education as determinant of class.
Answer:
There are few bases of class system which are given below:

1. Family and Kinship
2. Property, income and money
3. Occupation
4. Location of Residence
5. Education
6. Power
7. Religion
8. Race
9. Caste
10. Status Symbol.

1. Family and Kinship. Family and kinship are very important in determining status of class. According to Bierstdt, “As a base of social class, importance of family and kinship is not equal in all societies, but it is one of the bases out of those bases which can be used as,a part of the whole system.” Status given by family goes from generation to generation. For example the child born in the family of Tata, Birla will remain capitalist because their ancestors have earned a lot of money for them and they can live their life happily without doing anything. In this way person will get higher status who is born in a rich family. So in this way person gets higher status in class systeift due to his family and kinship.

2. Property, Income and Money. Property, income and money are the important bases of class. That is why modem society is known as capitalist society. Money is a source which can take person to higher class in quick succession. Karl Marx had also believed that money is the alone base of class determination. Here more money doesn’t mean that a person is rich. The thing which is important is how this money has been earned. Smugglers have a lot of money but their status is very low. Prostitutes also have a lot of money but their way of earning is not good. So the means are also important for determination of class.

3. Occupation. Occupation is also known as determinant base of social class. Which type of occupation a person is doing in society, is also related with class system. Some occupations in our class system are very important and some are less important. The social status of Doctor, Engineer, Professor is always higher irrespective of their family status. People give them a lot of respect. Occupation of an illiterate person is always lower in society. In this way occupation is an important determinant in class system. Every person has to do any work in life to live and he does this work according to his ability. He gets social status in society according to his occupation. If any one accumulates money with wrong deeds then his position is always low in society. In modem Indian society occupations related to education are of more importance.

4. Location of Residence. Where the person is living, is also a determinant factor of his class. We can see that people are very choosy about their place of living. Some areas in the city are ‘posh areas’ and some are backward areas. Persons who are living in posh areas have higher status and persons living in backward areas, slums and small colonies are of low status. Labourers, sweepers are generally making their colony in any area. Rich people are living in big and clean houses but poor people are living in slums.

5. Education. Modern society has been divided in two classes on the basis of education:

• Literate Class
• Illiterate Class

The importance of education exists in every society. We can generally see that literate people have more prestige in society irrespective of money. That is why today every person is trying to get education according to his present position. Nature of education is also responsible for the determination of class status. Status of technical persons is higher in industrial societies as compared to a simple person.

6. Power. Because of development of industrialisation and with the advent of democracy, power has also become a base of class structure. More or less power also determines the class of the society. With power, the social, economic and political status is also determined. Power is in the hands of people of higher strata and these can be politicians, military officers, rich people etc. We can take example of Indian Government. Status of Narendra Modi and Arun Jaitley is definitely higher than the position of Rahul Gandhi and Sonia Gandhi because they have power and authority in their hands. In the same way the position of B.J.P. is definitely higher than the Congress because today B.J.P. government is there in centre.

7. Religion. According to Robert Bierstdt, religion is also one of the important factors of social status. Some societies are there in the world where traditional fundamentalist views have great influence. Status is determined on the basis of higher or major religion. In modern times, where society is developing very quickly, the importance of religion has been reduced due to industrialization, western education, modernization etc. In ancient Indian society, Brahmins had highest status but today it is not so. Status of Muslims in Pakistan is definitely better than that of Hindus and Christians because Islam is the religion of Pakistan. In this way sometimes, religion also plays an important role in the determination of status of class.

8. Race. Race is also a determinant of class in many societies of the world. White people are considered, as of higher class and black people are considered as of lower caste. Asian countries are seen with the sense of hatredness in western countries. We can see racial conflict commonly in these countries.

9. Caste. In Indian Society, where caste system has played an important role from centuries, caste is also an important factor in determining class. Caste is based on birth. You cannot change your caste even if you have the ability and membership of caste in ancient times was based on one’s birth.

10. Status Symbol. Status symbol also determines the class of a person in every society. In modern age status of a person is determined by his house, car, T.V., telephone, fridge etc. In this way all those things are included in status symbol while a person needs to five a happy life and these things determine the status of person. On the basis of given description we can conclude that not only a single factor is responsible for the determination of class of a person but many factors are responsible for this.

Question 3.
Give difference between Caste and Class.
Or
What are the differences between Caste and Class? Write in detail.
Answer:
There are two main bases of social hierarchy-caste and class. Caste is a closed system and class is an open system but class is not a completely open system because person has to do a lot of hard work to change his class. According to some scholars there is hardly any difference between these two but after looking at them carefully, we will come to know that a number of differences are there between them which are given below:

1. Caste is based on birth but class is based on action. Membership of a person in the caste system was based upon birth. Person was related with that caste for the whole life in which he was born. For example, a person, who was born in Kshatriya caste, will remain Kshatriya for the whole life and he cannot change his membership. Membership of a person in class system is based upon income, education, occupation, ability etc. Person can change his membership according to his wish. A person can relate himself to the higher caste with hard work. Membership of class is based upon ability. If the person does have ability then he never does any work and can go from higher caste to lower caste. But if he does his work then he can change his position from lower caste to higher caste. In this ’way caste is based upon birth but class is based upon action.

2. Occupation of Caste is determined but not of class. In caste system occupation was determined by the birth of the person. It means that occupations were related with different castes. Person had to adopt the occupation of the caste in which he was born. He cannot change his occupation for his. whole life. In this way he had to adopt the occupation of his caste even against his wish. Scope of selection of occupation in class system is very wide. It is the wish of the person to choose the occupation. He adopts that occupation in which either he is expert or which is more profitable. He can change his occupation at any time. In this way the selection of occupation depends upon the ability of the person.

3. Membership of caste is ascribed but membership of class is achieved. Status of person in caste system was related with his caste. It means status was not achieved by him but was related with his birth. That is why the word ascribed was used for his status and that is why stability was there in caste system. Status of person was determined by the status of the family. Status of person in class system is achieved. It means he has to achieve his position in society. That is why the person is hard working right from the start. Person can get higher or lower status in society with his ability. Birth is of no importance. Person’s ability and hard work are important in changing his position.

4. Caste is a closed system but class is an open system. Caste system is a close system of stratification because person has to live in its restrictions for the whole life. He can neither change his caste nor his occupation. Class system is an open group of stratification. Person has every type of independence in it. He can move forward in any area with hard work. He gets full chances to change his position from lower to higher class. Class is open for everyone. Person can become member of any class according to his ability, property and hardwork and can change his class many times in his life.

5. There are many restrictions in caste system but not in class. Caste system puts many restrictions on its members. There were many restrictions related to feeding, social intercourse. Caste had full control over the life of the person. One was not in a position to break these restrictions. A person has individual freedom in class system. There is no control or restriction over feeding, marriage, social intercourse etc. Person of any class can establish contacts with person of any class.

6. There is no caste consciousness but there is class consciousness. There is no caste consciousness in caste system. Its reason is that the person of lower caste knows that the position of upper caste is higher but he is unable to do anything. That is why he stops working hard. Class consciousness exists in the members of the caste. On the basis of this consciousness class is formed. Person is conscious regarding this that he can get higher status with his hard work. That is why he is always trying to increase his ability.

Question 4.
Explain different indicators of Social Class.
Answer:
One indicator is that thing which tells everything about anything. Social mobility has many indicators out of which education, occupation and income are very important. Their description is given below:

I. Education. Education is known as the important means of social class. It has been said that the person will get more success in life if he gets more education. Education improves the wrong functions done by his ancestors. It has been believed that education should not be taken as a means of getting job because education never goes directly towards higher mobility. Education improves the ability of a person to avail of available opportunities at that time. Education tells those ways which are necessary to adopt any occupation but it never provides the opportunities to use those ways. Education works as a means of mobility in many ways like:

• Education tells a person the way to become manager from a labourer. Any labourer can get the post of manager after getting education.
• Education tells the way to adopt any occupation. Education provides the person the occupation with good income.
• Education helps the person to achieve the posts with more income and pay. Generally government post can be achieved through a system. That is why education is necessary to get post with higher pay.

It has been believed that the more time person spends in getting higher education, the more chances he will get to achieve higher income and to move upward in social mobility. From many studies we come to know that with education not only a person can achieve higher post but with that he learns ways of living and behaving in society. After learning this, chances of getting success increase. In this way education provides opportunities to a person to move upwards in social mobility.

Education increases chances to get opportunities in student’s life. The capacity of earning more increases with education. Children who are leaving their education in mid way are living their life with more difficulty. But the children, who are completing their education and spend a lot of time in their studies, are earning more when they become young.
Background of a child also affects his achievements in life. Child, with parents of higher status and education, are getting good atmosphere of education at home. Their parents become ideal for them. Parents motivate their children by telling them the importance of education. In this way after getting education, their capacity to achieve social status increases and they move in higher strata of the society by achieving good status. In this way education is an important indicator of mobility.

Here one thing should be kept in mind that if a person gets more and higher education, then the chances of doing progress increase for him. Person gets more chances of doing progress in job or in business if he invests more time and money in education. For example if any student has taken the degree of B.Gom. and has left the education then he will get very few chances to get a good job. But if he has completed MBA after B.Com. from any one of the I.I.M.’s then he will definitely get good job at very good pay. In this way amount of investment of time and money in education will increase the chances of doing progress in life. In the end we can say that though education is not a direct way of mobility yet it gives a great help to the person to change his occupation and to take full advantage from it. Education motivates the person to be mQbilised in life and provides opportunities to move upwards in life.

II. Occupation. Because of mobility, society comes to know which post should be given to which person. In this way only able persoh gets post in the society. In this way it helps the person to achieve his aims. We can divide occupation in two types of societies—open society and closed society. The importance of occupation in mobility in these societies is given below:

1. Closed Society. India, in ancient times, is an example of closed society. Four types of castes were there in ancient times. Occupation of every caste was fixed. Occupation of Brahmins was to teach because of which their social status was highest in society. After them Kshatriyas were there whose occupation was the protection of the country and to run the state. Third position was of Vaishyas whose occupation was to do trade and agriculture. At the end the place was of lower castes whose occupation was to serve upper castes.

Occupation of every person was determined by his caste and birth. Every caste was doing its specific function. Caste was restricting its members not to adopt any other occupation because with this the religious and economic bondages would be broken. If any one was breaking the rules of caste then he was generally thrown out of caste. In this way every caste and sub-caste was performing its specific function. After independence in our country, the processes of modernization and industrialization were started in our country with which people got the chance to change their occupation. The bondages of occupation on people came to an end and they started to adopt new functions. In this way mobility in closed societies started because of occupation and still it is going on.

In this way we can say that occupation, in closed societies, was not given on the basis of ability but it was given on the basis of one’s birth. Person had to adopt the related occupation of the caste in which he was born. Yet some occupations like job in military, agriculture, business etc. were free for all but still many restrictions were there regarding adoption of occupation. If any one was going against the rules of caste regarding occupation then he was generally thrown out of the caste. In this way occupation in closed society is not given on the basis of ability but is given on the basis of birth! But after the independence of our country, the process of mobility was started due to many reasons like modernization, westernization, industrialization, urbanization etc. and slowly and slowly mobility related to occupation was started. Now the mobility of occupation has started even in the closed societies like India. Now people are free to adopt the occupation of their choice and according to their ability. Restrictions related to occupation have been reduced to a great extent.

2. Open Society: Groups in open societies are not fundamentalists and persons are free to adopt any occupation. Person can adopt any occupation with his wish. In these type of societies with the increase in division of labour, mobility increases. But the occupation of good status will be given to able persons. Yet the demand of labourers is decreasing because of increase in machines but the division of technical labourers is still there. In this way the opportunities for the persons with technical education are increasing. People are adopting different occupations and mobility in society is increasing. In this way because of modernization and industrialisation, mobility is increasing in open societies.

In open societies, birth of the person is not important but his ability is very important. Person adopts occupation according to his wish and ability. There is no value of caste of the person in open societies that in which caste he was born. In open societies importance is that what a person can do or which type of ability does he have. Son of a barber can become an officer and son of an officer can become a businessman. Person can adopt the occupation of his choice. He is not forced to adopt the occupation which he does not like. He can take different types of technical education and can adopt different occupations. Chances of getting job increase very quickly just after doing any small course. Companies’ are attracting them by giving better status and better pay because of which people, leave their old job and go towards new jobs. With this mobility increases in society. Modernization and industrialization have increased the mobility in society to a great extent. In this way mobility related to ocupation, in open societies, is increasing very quickly.

3. Income: Income of a person is an important indicator of class. Income of a person plays an important role in bringing the status of a person high or low. Person with higher income will have higher status in society and the person with less income will have lower status in society. Today’s society is based upon class system. Money and income are of more importance in this system. Person can get higher status in social stratification with the help of his ability. Person can improve his economic condition compared to other persons because of his income. More income has important place in open societies. Income is also an important factor for the determination of social class. Person can make his life style better with the help of his income. Rich people have a lot of money

but their ways of living are different. New rich will take a lot of time to learn the ways of living of rich people. Even if he is unable to learn that way but his children will definitely learn that way. Social status of his children will become higher. They adopt the life style of rich people with money and his children get this style in heritage only.
In this way, the way of income also brings fame to a person in society. Income of a businessman will get respect in society, but the income of a prostitute and of a smuggler will be seen with great hatredness. Person changes his class, status, way of living with the increase in income and social mobility increases with this.
So from this description it is clear that education, occupation and income are important indicators of social mobility.

Status of the person changes automaticaly with the increase in income. People start to give respect to him. He becomes a rich person in the eyes of the people and automatically he gets prestige in society. But here one thing should be kept in mind that way of getting income should be sanctioned by society. With the increase in income person starts to buy things of leisure with which his social status also goes higher in society. He starts to live his life with leisure. In this way his status in society becomes higher from lower with the increase of inome and this is the indicator of class. In this way from given explanation it is clear that education, ocupation and income are the main indicators of social class.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Book Solutions Chapter 5 Class Inequalities Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Chapter 5 Class Inequalities

Sociology Guide for Class 12 PSEB Class Inequalities Textbook Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The history of all existing societies is the history of class struggle is stated by:
(a) Karl Marx
(b) V.I. Lenin
(c) Antonio Gramsci
(d) Rosa Luxemburg
Answer:
(a) Karl Marx

2. Who propounded the concept of class-in-itself and class-for-itself?
Or
Who propounded the concept of class consciousness and class struggle?
(a) Marx
(b) Weber
(c) Durkheim
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Marx

3. The class theory given by Eric Olin Wright is synthesis of ideas of:
(a) Marx and Durkheim
(b) Marx and Weber
(c) Marx and Spencer
(d) Marx and Engels
Answer:
(b) Marx and weber

4. Property less white collar professionals as one of the classes is discussed by:
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Max Weber
(c) Lloyd Warner
(d) Vilfredo Pareto
Answer:
(b) Max Weber

5. Which does not reveal the distinction between caste and class:
(a) Ascription and achievement
(b) Closed and open mobility
(c) Sacred and Secular
(d) Ruling and ruled.
Answer:
(d) Ruling and ruled

6. Which does not constitute the means of production:
(a) Land
(b) Culture
(c) Labour
(d) Capital
Answer:
(b) Culture

7. Who gives importance to life chances and market situation for class analysis:
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Max Weber
(c) Alfred Weber
(d) C.W. Mills
Answer:
(b) Max Weber

8. The ownership over the means of production is a determinant of:
(a) Status group
(b) Class
(c) Caste
(d) Social category
Answer:
(b) Class

9. The class of serf is opposite to
(a) Lords
(b) Petty-Bourgeois
(c) Bourgeois
(d) Master
Answer:
(a) Lords

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Class system is ……………… in nature.
Answer:
open

2. Class system is …………… in status
Answer:
achieved

3. Weber considered class in ……………….. term.
Answer:
inequality

4. Class status is determined by …………….. and ………………… of an individual.
Answer:
income, education

True/False:

1. Class system is one of the major forms of social stratification.
Answer:
True

2. A social class is essentially a status group.
Answer:
True

3. According to Weber, wealth, power and status form the basis of inequality.
Answer:
True

4. Social classes are open groups.
Answer:
True

Match the Columns:

Column A	Column B
1. Social classes	Bourgeoisie
2. Capitalist	Lifestyle of a particular class
3. Determinant of class	Open group
4. Class consciousness	Occupation
5. Mode of living	Self-awareness

Answer:

Column A	Column B
1. Social classes	Open group
2. Capitalist	Bourgeoisie
3. Determinant of class	Occupation
4. Class consciousness	Self-awareness
5. Mode of living	The lifestyle of a particular class

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
In which social group members share the same relationship to the forces of production?
Answer:
Social class.

Question 2.
Can one have upward and downward mobility in classes?
Answer:
Yes, one can have upward and downward mobility in classes.

Question 3.
Individuals or groups between different social economic positions are known as:
Answer:
Class.
Question 4.
Which social class broadly composed of people is involved in blue collar or manual occupation?
Answer:
Labour class.

Question 5.
Identify two important features of class.
Answer:

• There are many bases of class system.
• People of a group have class consciousness for their class.

Question 6.
What do you mean by ownership over the resources?
Answer:
It means that some individual has ownership over resources and he is the owner of such resources.

Question 7.
Identify means of production.
Answer:
Those means which help in the production of anything are known as means of production such as machines, industries, tools etc.

Question 8.
Name two classes that were found during slavery.
Answer:
Master and Slave.

Question 9.
Who is a bourgeois?
Answer:
One who holds all the means of production with whose help, he exploits other classes is known as bourgeois such as an industrialist.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you mean by class?
Answer:
A class is a group of people who consider each other equal and every class has its own status in society. Members of every class are given certain specific responsibilities, rights and powers.

Question 2.
Differentiate between caste and class.
Answer:

• Caste is a closed group but the class is an open group.
• Membership of caste is based on birth but membership of class is based on individual ability.

Question 3.
Identify those classes found in rural India.
Answer:
Big landlords, the absentee landlords, the upper and middle peasantry, the capitalist farmers, low peasantry, marginal famers, landless agriculturists, money lenders etc. are the classes found in rural India.

Question 4.
“What is the meaning of this statement of Marx that the history of all existing societies is the history of class struggle”?
Answer:
‘According to Marx, till today, there existed many societies in which there were two main groups—one which owned all the means of production and the other which didn’t. That’s why, there existed a struggle among them. That’s why Marx said, “The history of all existing societies is the history of class struggle.”

Question 5.
Name those classes which have been discussed by Max Weber.
Answer:

• Propertied bougeosie
• Non-propertied white collar workers
• Middle class
• Class working in industries.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Discuss the views of Eric Olin Wright on class.
Answer:
Eric Olin wright gave class theory which was the mixture of Marx and Weber’s views. According to Wright, there are three bases of controlling economic resources in a capitalist society and these are:

• Control over capital
• Control over land, factory or offices
• Control over labourers.

These bases form many classes such as owner, blue collar workers, white collar workers, professional employees, manual workers etc. According to him, workers of middle classs (managers and supervisors) have direct relation with the owners but labour class is exploited.

Question 2.
Differentiate between Caste and Class.
Or
What is the relationship between Caste and Class?
Answer:

Caste	Class
1. Membership of caste is based on birth.	1. Membership of class is based on occupation and individual ability.
2. Ascribed status is given in caste.	2. There is achieved status in the class.
3. Caste is an endogamous group.	3. Class is an exogamous group.
4. Caste gets validity from the Hindu religious activities.	4. Class gets validity from individual ability in the capitalist system.
5. There is no mobility in the caste system as it is a closed system.	5. There is mobility in the class system as it is an open system.
6. One cannot change his caste in any case.	6. One can change his class at any time with his ability.

Question 3.
Briefly write about those classes which are found in Rural India.
Answer:
See Question No. 3-short answer type questions (III).

Question 4.
Briefly write about those classes which are found in urban India.
Or
Write about those classes which are found in Urban India.
Answer:

• Corporate Capitalists
• Industrial Capitalists
• Financial Capitalists
• Bureaucrats/Academia of upper category
• Culture, political and economic elites
• Middle class-managers, businessmen, traders, self-employed people, small shopkeepers, bankers etc.
• Lower class
• Industrial working class in organised sector
• Working class in unorganised/semi-organised sectors
• Construction workers on daily wages.
• Unemployed persons.

Question 5.
Explain the middle class phenomenon.
Answer:
See Question 24—short answer type questions (other important questions)— Chapter-3.

Very Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Explain the Marxian theory of class.
Or
Describe the Marxian theory of class.
Answer:
Karl Marx has given conflict theory of social stratification and this-theory comes out because of political and social conflicts of 19th century. According to Marx, economic factor is the alone factor of social stratification and struggle in different classes. Marx has given this theory on the base of division of labour. According to him, labour is of two types—physical and mental and this difference is the main reason of difference in social classes.

Marx was of the view that there are two classes in society. First class is the owner of the means of production and second class is not the owner of means of production. On the basis of this ownership the position of owner class is higher and position of non-owner class is lower. According to Marx, owner class is capitalist class and non-owner class is labourer class. Capitalist class economically exploits the labourer class and labour class fights with capitalist class to get their rights. This is the result of stratification.

Marx was of the view that the main reason of stratification is the unequal distribution of property. Nature of stratification depends upon the classes of that society and the nature of classes depends upon the means of production. Ways of production depend upon technique. Class is a group in which relations of its members with forces of production are equal. In this way all those persons, who control the forces of production, come in first class i.e. capitalist class. Second class is that class

which is not the owner of forces of production but it earns its livelihood by selling its labour and that is labour class. Their name in different societies is different. For example, Feudal Lords and agricultural labourers in Feudal societies and capitalist and labourer in capitalist societies. Capitalist class has all the forces of production and labourer class has only its labour to sell with which it earns its livelihood. In this way the classes made on the basis of ways of production and unequal distribution of property are, according to Marx, social classes.

According to Marx, society today comes out of four stages or societies and these are:

• Primitive ancient society or communism
• Ancient society
• Feudal society
• Capitalist society

According to Marx, the classes did not come into being in first type of society but in later societies two main classes came into being. In ancient society owner and servant, Feudal Lords and agricultural labourer in Feudal society and capitalist and labourer class in capitalist society’came into being. In every society labour was being done by second class. Labour class is more in number and capitalist class is less in number. Marx has given two classes in every type of societies but on this point his views were not the same. Marx was of the view that there are three classes in capitalist society and these are labour class, capitalist class and land owners. Marx has given difference in these three classes on the basis of means of income, profit and rent of land. But Marx’s this three classes system never came into being in England.

Marx has written that with the development of capitalism three classes system will change into two classes system and middle class will come to an end. About this he has written in Communist Manifesto. Marx has also said about other classes in specific society. He has divided the capitalist class into two sub groups and these are effective capitalists and smaller capitalists. Effective capitalists are those capitalists which are bigger capitalists and industrialists which give work to thousands of labourers in their industries. Small capitalists are those small industrialists or shopkeepers whose business is at low level and they are not giving work to many labourers. They are doing most of their work themselves. Here Marx again says that with the development of capitalism middle class and small capitalists will come to an end and will join hands with labourer class. In this way there will be two classes in society and that is capitalist class and labourer class.

Relations Between Classes:

According to Marx capitalist class always exploits the labourer class and labourer class always fights for its rights. That is why the relations between both the groups are of opposition. Yet this opposition between these groups will hide due to their mutual interests but this opposition is always there. It is not necessary that we can see this opposition directly or opposition never comes in front of us but they know about each other’s opposition.

According to Marx, relations between the classes depend upon the mutual interdependence and conflict. We can take example of capitalist society in which two classes are there. First class is of capitalist class and second class is of labour class. These both classes depend upon each other for their existence. Labour class doesn’t have the ownership of forces of production. It doesn’t have any other mean to earn its livelihood except selling its labour. Labourers sell their labour to the capitalist class and are dependent upon them. They give their labour to capitalist and for that capitalist gives money to labourers for their labour. With this money or rent of labour, labourer takes care of the needs of the family. Capitalist also depends upon the labour of labourer because without their work, production in his factory is not possible and accumulation of capital is also not possible.

In this way both these classes depend upon each other. But this dependence doesn’t mean that they have relations of equality. Capitalist class always exploits the labour class. They want to make things in their factory by giving less money so that they can earn more profit. Labourer wants more money so that he can take care of the needs of his family. Capitalist tries to sell his product with more value by paying less money so that he can earn more profit. In this way conflict of interests is always there between both the classes. This conflict will give birth to communism later on in which there would be no opposition, there would be no exploitation and there would be no conflict of interests. This society will be classless society.

Karl Marx has explained the conflict theory of stratification on historical basis. Important things in the conflict theory of stratification of Marx are given below:

1. Two Classes in Society. Marx was of the view that generally two types of classes exists in every type of society. First one is” that which has all the means of production in its hands and this class is known as capitalist class. Second class is that which doesn’t have any means of production and which earns money only by selling its labour. This class is known as labour class. First class exploits the other class. It means that capitalist exploits and labourer is being exploited by capitalist.

2. Right Over Means of Production. While explaining stratification on historical basis Marx says that the stratification in society is based on the right over means of production. There exist two types of classes in every society on this base. First class is that which has the right over all the means of production. Second class is that which doesn’t have any right over means of production and which earns money by selling its labour.

3. Modes of Production. Nature of social stratification depends upon the modes of production. Position of that class is higher than other classes which has all the means of production. According to Marx, this class is known as capitalist or Bourgoisie. Second class is that which doesn’t have means of production, which is not satisfied by its position and which wants to change its position. Marx has given it the name of labour class or proletariat class.

4. Human History-History of Class Struggle: Marx was of the view that human history is the history of class struggle. We can take example of any society. Struggle in class is going on, in every society, in one form or the other. In this way Marx was of the view that two types of classes exist in all the societies- capitalist and labour class. Class struggle always goes on in both the classes. There are many reasons of class struggle in both the classes for e.g. too much economic differences between both the classes because of which class struggle is going on.

Capitalist becomes rich even without doing any hard work and labourer becomes poor even after doing a lot of hard work. With the passage of time, labour class makes its organization to save and meet its demands and this organisation does struggle with capitalist class to meet its demands. Result of this struggle between both the classes comes in the form of revolution which labour class does against the capitalist class.

After revolution, labourer class will eliminate the capitalist class and establish its authority. Capitalist tries to start anti-revolution movement against labourers but this movement will be suppressed and authority of the labourer class will be established. First of all communism and then the state of socialism will come in which every one will get according to its needs and ability. There will be no class in society and this will be a classless society in which every one will get equal share. No one will be of higher or lower status and the authority of labour class will remain there. Marx was of the view that this state has never yet come but it will come very shortly and stratification in society will come to an end.

Question 2.
Explain the Weberian theory of class.
Or
Discuss the Weberian view on the concept of class.
Answer:
Max Weber gave the theory of stratification in which he explained class, status group and party differently. Weber’s theory of stratification is considered as practical and rational. That’s why his theory is given enough importance by American Sociologists. Weber has explained stratification from three aspects and these are class, status and party. All these groups could be called as interest groups which not only can fight within themselves but they can fight even against each other. They tell us about a specific authority and are interrelated as well. Now we will explain . them one by one:

Class: Karl Marx has defined class on economic basis and in the same way Weber has also defined class on economic basis. According to Weber, “Class is a group of those people which are at equal status in structure of social, economic opportunities and which live in same conditions. These conditions depend upon their form and quantity of economic power.” In this way Weber talks about a type of group in which a specific number of people have equal chances in life. Yet this concept of Weber is not very much different from Marx’s concept of class but Weber has imagined class as the group of people living in same economic conditions not as a group of self-consciousness. Weber has given three types of classes which are given below:

1. A Property Class
2. An Acquisition Class
3. A Social Class

1. A Property Class: A property class is that group whose position depends upon the fact that how much property it has? This class is again further divided into two parts:

• The Positively Privileged Property Class. This class owns a lot of property and it lives on the income generated from its property. This class can keep monopoly over selling or buying of consumer goods, by collecting property or on taking education.
• The Negatively Privileged Property Class. Illiterate, poor, property less and people under debt are major members of this group. But there is one another group between these two groups and that is Privileged Middle class in which members of both the given classes are included. According to Weber, Capitalist is member of this group due to his privileged position and Labourer is its member due to its negatively privileged position.

2. An Acquisition Class: It is that type of group whose position is determined by taking advantage from opportunities of services available in the market. This group is of three types:

• The Positively Privileged Acquisition Class. This class keeps monopoly over administration of producer manufacturers. These factory owners are bankers, industrialists, financiers etc. These people not only keep control over administrative system but they exert influence on government’s economic policies as well.
• The Middle Privileged Acquisition Class. This class belongs to middle class people in which small professional people, artisans, independent farmers etc. are included.
• The Negatively Privileged Acquisition Class. People of lower classes are part of this group which include trained, semi trained and untrained labourers.

3. Social Class: Most number of people are included in this group. This class observes definite changes due to progress made by different generations. But Weber does not explain social class according to privileges. According to him people of labour class, lower middle class, intellectual class, property owner class are included in it.

According to Weber, members of class work with each other under specific circumstances and to this protest of doing work is being given the name of class action by Weber. According to Weber feeling of mutually related gives birth to class action. Weber has not believed that the thing like class action could take place all the times. Weber was of the view that there is no class consciousness in class but its nature is completely economic. There is no possibility among them that they would struggle collectively to achieve their common objectives. A class is only a group of people whose economic condition is same in the market. They can feel changes in their lives while collecting those things which have some respect in society and there is a possibility that they would collectively perform some action. Weber was of the view that if it does so then class can take the form of a community.

Status Group: Status group is generally considered as opposite to economic class stratification. Class is only based on economic assumption which is a group of same interests due to market conditions. These are not statistical classes but these are actually those groups whose life-style is common, outlook towards the society is common and which keeps unity among them.
According to Weber there is some difference between status group and class. Each has its own style and people can be unequal among them.

For example, teacher of a school. Yet his income might be 8-10,000 per month which is quite less in today’s age but his status is quite high due to his sacred profession. But on the other hand any smuggler or a prostitute could earn lakhs in a month but their status group will remain low because their profession is not sanctioned by society. In this way difference is there between both the, groups. Any occupational group can be called as a status group because in each type of profession, people get equal opportunities to earn money. This group also leads to same life-style of people. Members of one occupational group remain near to each other, wear same type of clothes and even have same type of values. That’s why its members have quite a wide circle.

Party: According to Weber, Party represents the determined interests associated with class status or status group. This party enrolls those members, in any condition, whose ideology matches with the ideology of party. But it is not necessary that the party could become status party for them. Weber was of the view that Parties always want to keep control over power. It means power should remain in their hands. Weber was of the view that yet parties are a part of political authority but even then power could be gained through various means like wealth, influence, pressure, rights etc. Parties want to obtain the power of State and State is an organisation.

Each activity of the party is concentrated on the fact that how the power could be obtained? Weber analysed the state and from here he gave the theory of Bureaucracy. According to Weber, parties are of two types. First one is Patronage party in which there are no .class rules, concepts, ideology etc. These are made for special purposes and could be left after the completion of objective. Second type of party is party of Principles which has clear and strong rules. These parties are not made for specific purposes. Weber was ‘of the view that there is quite much difference between these three i.e. class, status group and party but the mutual relation is always there among them.

Question 3.
What is the relationship between class, social mobility and social stratification?
Answer:
Class, social mobility and social stratification are deeply related but before checking their relation, we need to look into their meaning.

• Class: Class is a group of people which is different from the other groups on one base or the other. Members of a group are conscious of their group and never let others to enter in their group very easily.
• Social Mobility: Whole of the society is divided into different groups and when people leave their group to join the other one then this process is known as social mobility. With their individual ability, people change their class and the process of mobility is always going on.
• Social Stratification: The process of dividing society into different layers is known as social stratification. Society is divided in different layers on different bases such as age, caste, sex, income, education, wealth, etc.

If we look at the meaning of all these concepts carefully, we observe that they have quite a close relationship with each other. The process of dividing society into different classes is known as stratification and people keep on changing their groups. One can change his class according to his ability and the process of moving from one group to the other is known as mobility.

Presently, people are taking education and are adopting different occupations. After getting an education, their social status moves upward and they get a better job. This job brings a lot of money for them and they reach a higher level of social stratification. Gradually, they change their job to earn more money. In this way, they become the members of different groups and the process of social mobility moves on.

After looking at the given explanation, we can say that class, mobility, and stratification are deeply related. All these help in individual as well as social progress.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 2 Rural Society Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 2 Rural Society

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Rural society is deeply related with
(a) Nature
(b) Neighbourhood
(c) City
(d) Metro city
Answer:
(a) Nature

2. How much of the Indian population lives in villages and cities?
(a) 70% and 30%
(b) 32% and 68%
(c) 68% and 32%
(d) 25% and-75%
Answer:
(c) 68% and 32%

3. What is the main occupation of rural society?
(a) Industry
(b) Different occupations
(c) Technology
(d) Agriculture
Answer:
(d) Agriculture

4. In the Jajmani system, one who gives service is known as
(a) Jajman
(b) Praja
(c) Kammen
(d) One of these
Answer:
(c) Kammen

5. In the Jajmani system, one who takes service is known as
(a) Raja
(b) Jajman
(c) Praja
(d) Kammen
Answer:
(b) Jajman

6. Who said, “Real India lives in its villages.”?
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Sardar Patel
(c) B.R. Ambedkar
(d) Jawaharlal Nehru
Answer:
(a) Mahatma Gandhi

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Head of the village was known as ………………..
Answer:
Gramini

2. In 2011, around …………… crore people lived in villages.
Answer:
83.3

3. In …………… A.D., first book of rural people is …………….
Answer:
1916

4. Main occupation of the rural people is ……………
Answer:
agriculture

5. ……………. family exists in rural society.
Answer:
Joint

True/False:

1. Rural people mostly work in industries.
Answer:
False

2. Jajman takes the service.
Answer:
True

3. Green revolution started in 1956.
Answer:
False

4. Due to indebtedness, many farmers have committed suicide.
Answer:
True

5. Panchayat acts as the government of the village.
ATruenswer:

One Word/One Line Questions Answers :

Question 1.
How much of Indian population lives in villages?
Answer:
Around 68.84% of the Indian population lives in villages.

Question 2.
What are features of rural society given by Robert Redfield?
Answer:
Small size, distinctiveness, homogeneity, self-sufficiency.

Question 3.
How much of the rural population is engaged in agriculture or related occuptions?
Answer:
Around 75% of rural population is engaged in agriculture or related occupations.

Question 4.
How many people in 2011, lived in villages?
Answer:
In 2011, out of total population of 121 crore, around 83.3 crore people lived in villages.

Question 5.
What was the most important event in the history of rural sociology?
Answer:
The establishment of Country Life Commission in U.S.A. was the most important event in the history of rural sociology.

Question 6.
When and who published the first book of rural sociology?
Answer:
J.N. Gillettee in 1916 published the first book of rural sociology.

Question 7.
Name few of the important scholars related with rural sociology.
Answer:
S.C. Dubey, Oscar Lewis, M. N. Srinivas, Marroitt, Bailey, Gough, KL.Sharma, Andre Beteille etc.

Question 8.
How is rural population in comparison with urban society?
Answer:
Rural population is quite less in comparison with urban society.

Question 9.
What type of relations rural people have with each other?
Answer:
Rural people have quite close and face to face relations with each other.

Question 10.
Which type of family exists in rural society?
Answer:
Joint family exists in rural society.

Question 11.
What is joint family?
Answer:
That family whose three generations live under a common roof and they eat in a common kitchen.

Question 12.
Which type of marriage is available in rural society?
Answer:
Monogamy i.e. one male can marry with one female at a given time.

Question 13.
When did 73rd Constitutional Amendment take place?
Answer:
73rd Constitutional Amendment took place in 1992 A.D.

Question 14.
Which is the smallest political unit in rural areas?
Answer:
Panchayat is the smallest political unit in rural areas.

Question 15.
Name the three levels of Panchayat Raj System.
Answer:
Panchayat at village level, Block Samiti at block level and Zila Parishad at district level.

Question 16.
What are the major issues of rural areas?
Answer:
The problem of indebtedness and impacts of green revolution.

Question 17.
What is indebtedness?
Answer:
When one person takes loan from another on interest to do any work it is known as indebtedness.

Question 18.
What is meant by HYV Seeds?
Answer:
HYV seeds are High Yielding Variety Seeds.

Question 19.
Who is known as the father of green, revolution in India?
Answer:
Prof. Swaminathan is known as the father of green revolution in India.

Question 20.
What is the full form of IADP?
Answer:
Intensive Agriculture District Programme..

Question 21.
When was green revolution started?
Answer:
Green revolution started in 1966.

Question 22.
Name few important elements of green revolution.
Answer:
HYV seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, machines, new means of irrigation etc.

Question 23.
Give one feature of Rural society.
Answer:
Rural society is small in size and social uniformity is there in it.

Question 24.
What according to Pannikar is the strong base of Indian social system?
Answer:
According to pannikar, caste system, rural life and joint family system are the bases of Indian social system. .

Question 25.
Who are known for their deceiveness in rural areas?
Answer:
Money lenders are known for their deceiveness in rural areas.

Question 26.
Give one result of Indebtness.
Answer:
A peasant comes under debt trap and finally money lender captures his land.

Question 27.
The production of which crops was increased with Green Revolution in Punjab?
Answer:
The production of Wheat and Rice was increased with Green Revolution in Punjab.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1. Rural Society.
Answer: Rural society is the society which lives quite close to nature, whose people’s main occupation is agriculture, where people have close relation with homogeneity, who live in a particular geographical area and are self-dependent in all aspects.

Question 2.
Two features of rural society.
Answer:

• Rural society is small in size in comparison with urban society and their population is quite less.
• People living in rural areas have close relations with each other.

Question 3.
Caste Panchayat.
Answer:
During earlier times, there existed caste system and each caste had its own panchayat which solved its problems. This caste panchayat had all the powers of giving justice and to impose fine.

Question 4.
Joint family.
Answer:
Joint family is a type of family in which people of three generations live under one roof, eat in a common kitchen and all the members have equal rights on the property of family.

Question 5.
Panchayat.
Answer:
At village level, a local self-govt, is established.which is known as Panchayat. Its members are elected by the village gram sabha and panchayat is elected for five years. Panchayat is responsible for the development of village.

Question 6.
Endogamy.
Answer:
When an individual needs to marry within a particular group, it is known as endogamy. According to ancient rules, an individual was required to marry within his caste or sub-caste or he was thrown out of caste.

Question 7.
Exogamy.
Answer:
When a person needs to marry out of a particular group it is called exogamy. According to this rule, one needs to marry out of his family, kinship, gotra, etc. as they all are his blood relatives.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Rural Society.
Answer:
Rural society is that area where technology is scarcely used, primary relations are very important, small in size and where most of the population depends upon agriculture. In this way rural community is that community which lives at a definite place, which is small in size, which has very close relations in its members and primary relations exist in it. People know each other very well and the main occupation of the people is either agriculture or agriculture-related occupation.

Question 2.
Two definitions of Rural Society.
Answer:
1. According to R.N. Mukherji, “A village is that community which is characterized by relative homogeneity, informality, prominence of primary groups, lesser density of population and agriculture as the main occupation.”

2. According to Peake, “The village community consists of a group of the related or unrelated persons larger than a single or unrelated persons, larger than a single family occupying a large house or a number of dwellings placed closed together, sometimes irregularly, sometimes in a street and cultivating originally in common a number of fields, dividing the available meadow land between them and pasturing their cattle upon surrounding waste land over which the community claims right as far as the boundaries of the adjacent community.”

Question 3.
Rural Society—Main occupation Agriculture.
Answer:
The main occupation of the tribal society is either agriculture or any of the related work because they are very much closely related with nature. Because they are closely related with nature, that’s why their views towards life are very much different. Yet many other occupations, like carpenter, blacksmith etc, are there in villages but they also make tools related with agriculture. Land is considered as a very important thing in tribal society and people like to live here because their life depends upon the land. Even the economic system and development of people and villages depend upon agriculture.

Question 4.
Rural Society—Scarcity of population and Homogeneity.
Answer:
Population of villages is very less as compared to urban areas. People are living in small groups and very much away from each other and these groups are known as villages. There are very less occupations in rural areas except agriculture because of which people like to go to cities to earn money and that’s why population in villages is very less. People have close relations with each other and their views are also same due to same occupation of agriculture. Customs, rituals, traditions etc. of rural people are common and there is hardly any. difference in their economic, moral and religious life. People in village are coming to live from far off places but they are the original inhabitants of villages or are living in the nearby areas. That? is why people have homogeneity among themselves.

Question 5.
Rural Society-Importance of Neighbourhood.-
Answer:
Neighbourhood has great importance in rural society. Main occupation of the people is agriculture in which they get enough pleasure time. This occupation hardly needs much time. That’s why people meet each other, talk with each other and co-operate with each other. People have very close relations with their neighbours. Neighbours generally are of same caste because of which their status is also same. People generally like to give respect to their neighbour. They come to help very quickly in each other’s problems. That’s why neighbourhood is of great importance in rural society.

Question 6.
Rural Family and Control of Family.
Answer:
Person is in complete control of the family in rural societies. Generally patriarchal families are there in the villages and every type of decision of the family is being taken by the head of the family. Division of labour in villages is being done on the basis of sex. Males are either doing agriculture or are going out of the house to earn some money and females are taking care of the house by living in the house. A joint family system is there in villages and a person adopts the traditional occupation of the family. Every member of the family works with each other and that’s why they have community feeling in them. Family is known as primary group. Younger ones like to give respect to elders. They have a great sense of co-operation due to same occupation. All the members of the family take part in all the festivals and religious activities. Person always takes the advice of the family before doing anything. In this way the family has complete control over its members.

Question 7.
Rural Society and closeness with Nature.
Answer:
Because the rural people live away from the artificial atmosphere, that’s why these people are very much close to nature. Their main occupation is agriculture and that’s why they are directly related with nature. Their life also depends upon nature. They worship Sun God, Varun, Indra etc. These people are very much afraid of natural forces like rain, flood, earthquake etc. because their agriculture depends upon these things. These forces can destroy their hard work of the whole year. That’s why these people are traditional and their outlook is also limited.

Question 8.
Rural Society—Lower Status of Women.
Answer:
Status of women is very low in villages because females are limited only to household functions. The division of labor in villages in ancient time was based on sex. Females were doing household work and males were doing work out of the house. Yet the time is changing and people are sending their girls to schools but still their point of view towards women is the same.

Question 9.
Changes which are coming in Rural Society.
Answer:

• Differences in urban and rural societies are decreasing.
• Changes in the structure of agriculture and commercialization of agriculture.
• Decreasing effect of religion.
• Effect of technology has been increased.
• Dependence on nature of farmers has been decreased.
• Level of education is increasing.

Question 10.
Rural Society—Decreasing impact of Religion.
Answer:
Rural people were under great impact of religion in ancient times. Every type of agricultural activity was under the influence of religion but now this thing remains no more. In earlier times, trees, birds and animals were considered as sacred but now this has been reduced. Many changes have come in the religious beliefs, customs, traditions etc. of rural people. New generation hardly accepts these things. Daily life, in today’s technological age, is moving away from the influence of temples and gurudwaras.

Question 11.
Rural Family.
Or
Joint Family.
Answer:
Rural families are generally patriarchal and joint families. Father has the complete authority in rural family and all the members of rural family live in one house. Due to living in one house they make food in one kitchen and community feeling is too much. In this way joint families are there in rural societies in which members of many generations are living. These are large in size and every one has equal right over the property.

Question 12.
Rural Family—Patriarchal Family.
Or
More powers of father in Rural Family.
Answer:
More powers of father. Father has more powers in rural family. Father is wholly incharge of the family. Many functions of the family are there which are being done by father with his will, like division of labour on the basis of sex and age, marriage of children, taking care of income and house etc. Father has so much influence on the family that not even a single member can speak against him. Rural family is exactly opposite to the Urban family where every member of the family has its own importance.

Question 13.
Characteristics of Rural Family.
Or
Write four features of Joint Family.
Answer:

• Rural families are quite large in size.
• Rural families depend upon agriculture.
• More community feeling or unity is there in rural families.
• More interdependence and discipline are there in rural families.
• Father has more rights in it.
• The person has more participation in family functions.
• Such families have a common kitchen, house etc. and they share family property within themselves.

Question 14.
Rural Familism.
Answer:
Family is a very important unit in the rural social structure. Every type of institution, which prevails in villages, is greatly influenced by rural families. That’s why the family has more importance in rural society as compared to an individual. It is known as Familism. When the whole family is given importance as compared to one or two persons then it is known as familism. Some sociologists are of the view that in agriculturalist societies, social and political organizations has the features of the family because family is the basic and most important unit in rural society. Influence of familial traits over social organizations of rural society are made according to the political organization is known as Familism.

Question 15.
Rural Marriage.
Answer:
Marriage, in rural society, is not a contract but is considered a religious sacrament. Marriage, in villages, is being done in the traditional way and with complete rituals and customs. Gods and Goddesses are worshiped before marriage. Boy takes his Baraat to girl’s house and many rituals and customs are being performed related with marriage, with this marriage are completed. Yet these customs and rituals are decreasing in urban areas but rural societies are used to performing marriage with all customs and rituals. We can’t see the great pomp and show of cities in rural marriage but it is performed with complete traditions.

Question 16.
Rural Marriage is a Religious Sacrament.
Answer:
Marriage is considered a religious sacrament in rural society because its aim is religious. It has been written in religious books that a person will do marriage to make his house, to produce children, for the continuation of society, and to pay his debts. A person can pay his debts only by doing marriage and by producing children. Person in rural society has to go through many rituals from birth till death. That’s why it is considered a religious sacrament.

Question 17.
Arranged Marriage.
Answer:
Marriage in rural societies is not a relation of one male and female but is considered as the relation of two families, groups or two villages. That’s why parents play an important role in finding a mate for their children. Enough importance is given to the size, status, kinship and economic position of the family while selecting the mate of the child. With this, the personal traits of would-be mate are also given enough importance. If the child has any personal problem then it would be very difficult to find his/her mate. Parents are doing marriage of their child and they always try to do marriage with great pomp and show.

Question 18.
Rules of Mate Selection in Rural Areas.
Answer:
Kapadia has given three rules of mate selection in rural areas and these are as follows :

• The field of selection
• Parties for selection
• Criteria of selection.

Question 19.
Village Exogamy.
Answer:
According to the rule of village exogamy members of one village cannot marry each other. A person has to marry out of his village. It is considered that all the citizens of a village are the children of one parent. Citizens of one village are considered as the relatives of each other. We can listen commonly in the villages of Punjab that sister or daughter of village is the sister or daughter of every one. That’s why a person has to marry out of his village. It is“known as village exogamy.

Question 20.
Dowry.
Answer:
Dowry. People are giving dowry to their girl at the time of marriage and this process is going on from the ancient times. At the time of marriage, parents are giving some gifts to the bridegroom and his relatives while sending their daughter to the boy’s house. These gifts are known as dowries. Every family gives dowry according to their economic status and according to the social status of the family of the bridegroom. If the economic status of the family is good then they give good dowry but if the economic status of the family is weak then they give less dowry. This custom is in great demand in modern times and it prevails equally in the whole of Indian society.

Question 21.
Rural Economy.
Answer:
The rural economy is based upon agriculture and agriculture is being done on land. That’s why land is of great importance in rural society and the rural economy. Around 70% population of our country is engaged in the occupation of either agriculture or any other agriculture-related occupation. Yet there are certain other occupations in the rural economy but agriculture is of great importance. People produce things by cultivating the land. Methods of production are still ancient. Yet farmers, in many parts of the country, are using modern technology and machines to do agriculture but still, most parts of the country are using old means of agriculture.

Question 22.
Indebtedness.
Answer:
Another important feature of the economy of Indian rural society is the indebtedness of farmers. There are many reasons behind the indebtedness of farmers. Rural families are large in size. Yet their income is less but their expenditure is more due to large family. They have to take loans on interest from money lenders to meet their needs because of which they come into the circle of indebtedness. Expenditure of agriculture has been increased to a great extent these days like rates of seeds and fertilizers have been increased, spending on diesel for pumps of irrigation due to unavailability of electricity. More expenditure on agriculture due to less rain, bad quality of production forces them to sell their produce at rates less than the minimum support price, etc. Due to these factors, farmers are unable to meet their expenditure on cultivation. That’s why they have to take loans either from banks or from money lenders. They are unable to repay their loans due to more rate of interest and slowly and slowly they come under the trap of indebtedness.

Question 23.
Jajmani System.
Answer:
The entire rural economy in the Jajmani system revolves around agriculture and farmer. Farmer has the most important place in rural economy and other castes have many related functions of agriculture. Farmer prepares the land for agriculture but other castes give their services for the completion of the whole agricultural process and they take their part from the produce of that land. The blacksmith makes the related tools of agriculture and cobler makes shoes for the farmer. The main feature of the Jajmani system is that human needs of life are fulfilled only at the local level. In this way rural economy moves in a proper way with the Jajmani system.

Question 24.
Characteristics of Rural Economy.
Answer:

• The main occupation of people in tribal economy is agriculture and life of the people depends upon this.
• Production in rural economy is being done through agriculture and the means of production are still old.
• The land is the base of every type of relation in rural economy and the farmer is the owner of the land.
• More population is there in rural areas because of which pressure on land increases for more production.
• There is a great problem of indebtedness in rural economy and farmers are always in debt of money lenders.

Question 25.
Reasons of Indebtedness in Rural Society.
Answer:

• Means of income of farmers are temporary because of which they have to take loans if any need arises.
• The population of the family of a farmer is more but income is limited because of which they have to take loan.
• Farmers have the habit to show off because of which they spend more than they need. That’s why they have to take a loan for that.
• The loan is easily available for farmers from money lenders because of which they get encouragement to take loans.
• Money lenders never let any farmer to go out of its clutches. That’s why they are rounded in this cycle of indebtedness.

Question 26.
Zamindari System.
Answer:
Zamindari system was started in the rural society of our country after the advent of Britishers. Under this system, one person or zamindar was the owner of a very big piece of land. He himself was not doing anything and was living a very luxurious life. But he used to give his land to marginal farmers for cultivation. Some portion of the production was given to the marginal farmers. In this way, he was getting a lot of money without doing anything and was living a luxurious life. This system was abolished after independence.

Question 27.
Tenancy reforms.
Answer:
Tenancy reforms. The main aims of reforms related to tenants in five-year plans were

• Security of laborers
• to decrease rent
• ownership of tenants. Even after the abolition of the zamindari system, labor was going on in large areas of the land. That’s why many steps were taken by governments of different states like the security of laborers and co-determine proper rent of land with which laborers came in direct contact with the state. These reforms were revived in the meetings of Chief Ministers in Nov. 1969 and Sept. 1970 and it was decided that more steps should be taken by the government for the improvement of position of labourers.

Question 28.
Panchayati Raj Institution.
Answer:
There are two ways for the development of the local areas in our country. Local governments are there for the development of urban areas and Panchayati Raj institutions are there for the development of rural areas. 70 % of the total population in our country lives in rural countries. That’s why the institutions which have been made for the development of rural areas are known as Panchayati Raj Institutions. It has three levels. Panchayat is there for the development at village level, Block Samiti is there for the development at block level and Zila Parishad is there for the development at district level. Its members are nominated as well as elected.

Question 29.
Gram Sabha.
Answer:
All the adult persons of the total population, of the village, are the members of Gram Sabha and it is the complete unit of the whole population of the village. This is the basic unit on which the whole structure of our democracy rests. Grain Sabha can be made in that village whose population is more than 250. If the population of one village is less than 250 then two villages can jointly make the Gram Sabha. Every adult of the village is a member of Gram Sabha, who has the right to vote. There is one chairman and some members of every Gram Sabha. It is elected for 5 years.

Question 30.
Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Every Gram Sabha elects one Gram Panchayat from its area. In this way, Gram Sabha is an executive institution that elects members for the Gram Panchayat. It has one Sarpanch and 5-13 panches. There are certain places in panchayats that are reserved for backward classes and females. It is generally elected for 5 years but the state government can dissolve them even before 5 years if it will try to misuse its power. Government officials and mentally ill persons cannot fight the elections. Gram Panchayat solves the problems of the village and develops many things like industries, agriculture, cleanliness, means of recreation, and means of transport.

Question 31.
Functions of Panchayat.
Answer:

• The first function of Gram Panchayat is to uplift the social and economic life of the people.
• Village panchayat tries to open schools in the village and motivates the people to send their children to schools.
• Gram Panchayat also arranges for the means of a recreation like films, festivals and opening up of library in the village.
• Panchayat tells the people about new techniques of agriculture and it arranges for new seeds and developed fertilizers.
• For the industrial development of the village, it also tries to establish any industry in the village.

Question 32.
Nyaya Panchayat.
Answer:
Nature of two persons is not same. That’s why problems are arising among them. In this way problems between villagers are arising and they fight with each other. Nyaya Panchayat stops and solves these problems. One Nyaya Panchayat is generally formed for 5-10 Gram Sabhas. Its members are elected and Sarpanch makes one committee of 5 members. They have the right to ask questions to Panchayat.

Question 33.
Panchayat Samiti or Block Samiti.
Answer:
Panchayats coming under one block are the members of Panchayat Samiti and Sarpanches of these Panchayats are the members of Panchayat Samiti. Members of Panchayat Samiti are also elected. Panchayat Samiti takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which-are coming in its area. It checks the developmental functions of the village and directs the Panchayat for the welfare of the village. It is the second level of Panchayati Raj.

Question 34.
Zila Parishad.
Answer:
The highest level of Panchayati Raj is Zila Parishad which takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which are coming in the district. It is an executive institution. Chairman of Panchayat Samiti, elected members, members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and Legislative Assemblies are the members of Zila Parishad. All these take care of the developmental functions done in the villages of the district. Zila Parishad does many functions like improvement of agriculture, improvement of land, irrigation, rural electrification, arrangement of seeds and fertilizers, education, industries, etc.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Rural Family? Explain its characteristics.
Answer:
Family keeps a very important place in rural social structure because family is of great importance in agriculturist societies. Generally, we can see many forms of families in villages but a joint family is that family which exists in all the rural societies. We can find Patriarchal joint families in every part of India. That’s why now we will discuss the joint family in rural society.

A joint family is a group in which members of many generations live with each other. It means that grand father-grand mother, mother-father, uncle-aunt, their children, wives of boys, and unmarried children live in one place.

According to Karve, “A joint family is a group of persons who generally live under one roof, who eat and cook at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred.”According to I.P. Desai, “We call that household joint family which has greater generation depth than the nuclear family and the members of which are related to one another by property, income and mutual rights and obligations.” So after looking at these definitions we can give some of the features of a joint family and these are :

1. They are large in size.
2. Members of this family have a sense of co-operation.
3. Property in the family is common to all.
4. All the members of the family live at one commonplace.
5. All the economic, social, and cultural activities of the members are common in the family.

Desai was of the view that those societies, where occupations related to agriculture are more in number, have a patriarchal joint family. The joint family acts as an economic property in agricultural societies. Patriarchal rural joint family has many functional, psychological, political aspects which differentiate it from the urban family system. So from this description, it is clear that the generally patriarchal joint family exists in rural society. Characteristics of this type of family are given below : Characteristics of Rural Family

1. Large in size
2. Dependency upon agriculture
3. More unity
4. More inter-dependency and discipline
5. More proudness of family
6. More powers of the father
7. More participation in household affairs.

Now we will explain them in detail.

1. Large in size: The first characteristic of rural family is that it is large in size because members of many generations live at one place. The increasing population of our country is responsible for its large size. Even at some places its members reach the number of 60-70. But generally one simple rural family has 6-15 members and that’s why it is large in size.

2. Dependency upon agriculture: The main occupation of the rural people is agriculture because of which all the members of rural family are engaged in agricultural activities. For example, ploughing is done by any one and any one else brings fodder for cattle. Females of the rural family work in fields because of which rural family is different from urban family. Many females give their help to the husbands in fields and work to fill the gap of labourer. Even females living at houses don’t have any leisure time. They give fodder and water to cattle. Their ideas, thinking etc. become the same because they work with each other in fields.

3. More unity: One of the important features of rural family is that it has more unity. Rural families have more unity as compared to urban families. Like husband- wife, grand father-grand son, parents have more emotional relations. If we look at the rural areas then we will come to know that rural people like to live in groups and their unity can be seen at the time of function of the family. All the members of rural family have same feelings, views, wishes, activities. They do same type of works and think in the same way. Importance of personal life is less as compared to the family. All the members live their fives according to the ideals and traditions of the family.

4. More inter-dependency and discipline: Members of rural family depend more upon each other as compared to urban families. Humans in urban areas fulfil their needs out of the family. But the economic, social, psychological, religious needs of humans are fulfilled only in the family. It is so because except family, no other means can fulfil human needs in villages and person alone cannot fulfil all of his needs. For example, no boy or girl in village can marry itself but family arranges for their marriage. Because of this more dependency family and elders have full control on their members. Younger members of the family never say no to elders for any work.

5. More proudness of family: Another important feature of the rural family is the more proudness of family. Because members of the family are interdependent and united that’s why family takes the form of a unit in which family has more importance than the member. In simple words family has more importance in rural areas than any individual member. Any work done by the member can become the proudness or black spot of the family. It is expected from every member of the family that he should maintain respect of the family. We can see example of proudness of the family that sometimes two families start fighting with each other for the respect of the family.

6. More powers of father: The father has more powers in rural family. Father is the wholly incharge of the family. Many functions of the family are there which are being done by father with his will, like division of labour on the basis of sex and age, marriage of chifdren, taking care of income and house etc. Father has so much influence on the family that not even a single member can speak against him. Rural family is exactly opposite to the urban family where every member of the family has its own importance.

7. More participation in household affairs: Another important feature of the rural family is that all the members of family greatly participate in household affairs. Members spend more time with each other due to same occupation and that’s why members of the family take part in every activity of the house: They work together in fields during day time and at home during night and that’s why they are very close to each other.

Except for these characteristics, rural families have many other characteristics like :

1. Importance of religion
2. Lower status of women
3. Worship of ancestors
4. Dominance of joint family

In this way many characteristics of rural family are given.

Question 2.
What do you know about Rural Familism? Explain it.
Answer:
Family is a very important unit in the rural social structure. Every type of institution, which prevails in villages, is greatly influenced by rural family. That’s why family has more importance in rural society as compared to an individual. It is known as Familism. When the whole family is given importance as compared to one or two persons then it is known as familism. Some sociologists are of the view that in agriculturalist societies, social and political organizations has the features of the family because family is the basic and most important unit in rural society. Influence of familial traits over social organizations feel of rural society are made according to the and political organization is known as Familism.

According to Sorokin, “Because family is the basic social institution in rural society, that’s why it is naturally expected that feature of rural family and social institutions should have influence over agricultural groups. In other words it forms the basic social relations of all the rural familial relations. Word Familism is used for these social organizations.”
In this way when political and social institutions of the village are under the influence of religion then it is known as Familism. Familism has many features which are given below :

1. Family—in the form of an ideal. Family is considered as an ideal in the society. Family has some moral measurements, religious beliefs, social concept and if any one tries to break them or tries to destabilize the family then he is being criticised by others.

2. Family—a unit of social responsibility. Family is the basic unit of any rural society. That’s why it takes all the responsibilities and pays tax collectively. Any person in the village is known by his family. No one is known personally in the family.

3. Effect of family on political institutions. Forms of political institutions in agriculturalist societies are just like a rural family. Relation of ruler and general masses is just like as the relation of head of the family with other members of the family. Head of the family is the representative of the family in the political activities of the village. Even members give their vote to that party where head of the family says so.

4. Relations of co-operation. Relations in unban societies are not full of co-operation but are contractual. Person can disconnect his relation after the completion of his work. But relations in agriculturalist societies or in rural societies are not contractual but are full of co-operation, love and sympathy. Co-operative relations come forward due to living and working with each other by believing in same views and beliefs and with unity and integrity of the family.

5. Family—A unit of production, consumption and exchange. Economic system of rural society also has the features of rural family. Production and consumption is being done in the family. It means that production, in the family, is being done according to the needs of the family and family consumes that production. Exchange in villages is being done is a very simple way. People exchange things instead of exchange of money and things. Family is also the base of the exchange.

6. Many customs. All the process of rural life in agriculturalist societies moves around the customs of the family. Customs related to every aspect of life exists in rural society and they always affect every aspect of the life of the person.

7. Dominance of ancestral worship. Religion is of great importance in rural society. All the members of the family have to obey the customs and traditions of the family. Worship of ancestors is a very important part of rural society. People worship their ancestors with the worship of gods and godesses. In this way family has its own features in those societies where familism has its dominance.

Question 3.
What is Rural marriage? Explain its features.
Or
Explain the marriage system in rural society.
Answer:
Generally marriage is considered as necessary for every one because marriage is necessary for the continuation of the society. Children without marriage are not sanctioned by society and are considered as illegal. It is quite important in agricultural societies. Marriage of children is considered as necessary in rural society. Girl child is generally considered as burden on the parents. That’s why marriage of girl child is being done at very early age. In this way marriage is the relation between male and female whose aims are to make family, establish house, produce children and continuation of the society.

Marriage is the very important stage in human life. Indian society is basically a rural society because of which marriage is considered as a family affair. Two families make relations with each other with their help and boy and girl also make relations with each other. Marriage out of the clan and marriage within the caste is considered as necessary in rural society. We can come to know about the status of two families with marriage.

Marriage, in rural society, is not a contract but is instead considered as a religious sacrament. Marriage, in villages, is being done in traditional way and with complete > rituals and customs. Gods and Goddess are worshiped before marriage. Boy takes his Baraat to girls’ house and many rituals and customs are being performed related with marriage. With this marriage is completed. Yet these customs and rituals are decreasing in urban areas but rural societies used to perform marriage with all customs and rituals. We can’t see the great pomp and show of cities in rural marriage but it is being performed with complete traditions.

In this way whichever marriage, in rural society, is being performed with all , religious sacraments, customs, traditions etc. then it is known as rural marriage. With this marriage, not only religious customs are performed but the aims of marriage i.e. sexual satisfaction and procreation of children etc. are also fulfilled.

Characteristics of Rural Marriage:

1. Religious sacrament. Marriage is considered as a religious sacrament in rural society because its aim is religious. It has been written in religious books that person will do marriage to make his house, to produce children, for the continuation of society and to pay his debts. Person can pay his debts only by doing marriage and by producing children. Person in rural society has to go through many rituals from birth till death. That’s why it is considered as a religious sacrament.

2. Related with religion. Rural marriage is always related with religion because rural marriage is being performed with complete rituals and customs. Yet these religious rituals have been decreased to a great extent but they still exist in rural society. Person has to complete many religious rituals and that’s why he has to obey many duties like to pay many debts and to do many types of ‘yajnas’. It is necessary for a person to do marriage to do ‘yajnas’ because he cannot do yajna without marriage. In this way rural marriage is related with religion.

3. Marriage to be done with complete traditions. Marriage in rural society is performed after completing all the rituals and in a traditional way. Traditions, like boy goes to the girl’s house with Baraat, all the persons in Barat are dancing, after marriage boy takes the girl to his house in ‘Doli’ and then many religious customs are to be performed there with which marriage is performed. These traditions and customs not only exist in rural society but also prevail in Hindu marriage. That marriage is not considered as a complete marriage which is not performed with all the rituals and traditions.

4. Marriage cannot be broken. Marriage, in rural society, is not considered as a contract but is considered as a religious sacrament. If it is to be considered as a contract then it can be broken at any time like urban societies. But marriage is considered as a religious sacrament in rural society which cannot be broken at any time. Marriage is considered as a bond of seven births which cannot be broken.

5. Marriage is necessary. Marriage is considered necessary in rural society because unmarried children are considered as a burden on parents. It is necessary specially for girls because if the marriage of a girl is not performed then it is considered as the parents are unable to perform their duty. It has been believed in rural society that woman should bear a child and become a mother because it is necessary for the continuation of society. Marriage of girl is considered as necessary than that of boy because there is no fear of character losing of boy but if girl will go in a wrong direction then the status of the family will become lower.

6. Arranged marriage by parents. Marriage in rural societies is not a relation of one male and female but is considered as the relation of two families, groups or two villages. That’s why parents play an important role in finding mate for their children. Enough importance is given to the size, status, kinship and economic position of the family while selecting mate of the child. With this the personal traits of would be mate are also given enough importance. If the child has any personal problem then it would be very difficult to find his/her mate. Parents are doing marriage of their child and they always try to do marriage with great pomp and show.

7. Role of Priest. Brahmin or Priest has a tfery important role in marriage. Generally, in all societies, parents are matching the Janampatri (horoscope) of their children and this work is being done by astrologer. If Janampatri matches then they start the process of marriage but if Janampatri does not match then they stop the process at once. At the time of shagun, exchange of rings take place. In marriage he has a very important role to play because he performs the marriage after completing all the rituals of marriage. He reads many religious mantras to perform marriage. In this way religious person or priest has a very important role to play in marriage. With this one important thing is there in rural marriage and that is that boy and girl cannot meet each other during the time of mangni and marriage. Yet there is no restriction regarding this in urban areas. This short span of time is considered as very special because small things can create problems and marriage can also be broken.

Rules of Mate Selection:

Question 4.
Which types of rules are there in rural society regarding mate selection?
Answer:
The major question in front of parents, in any society, is to do marriage of their children. Mate is necessary for the marriage and selection of the mate is the biggest problem. Meaning of selection of mate is that finding life partner for their child. For selection of mate, it is necessary that the area of selection of marriage should be determined that where to do marriage and where not to do marriage. Some rules regarding selection of mate have been made in our societies that not to marry within clan or gotra but one has to marry within his caste or subcaste. Generally every society has its different rules and these rules are changing according to time and society. Selection of mate does not depend upon the wish of the person but is according to the rules made by society. That’s why selection of mate has been divided by Kapadia in three parts and these three parts are :

1. The field of selection
2. Parties for selection
3. Criteria of selection.

Now we will explain them in detail.

1. Field of Selection. Some rules in Hindu society have been made regarding marriage like Endogamy and Exogamy. Field of .selection becomes limited after accepting and’ following these rules. Rules of endogamy and exogamy are given below :

1. Endogamy. According to the rules of Endogamy one needs to marry within his own caste. Caste was again divided into sub-castes. In this way man had to marry in sub-caste. During the times of caste system, this rule was strictly applied. If any one was trying to break or was breaking this rule then the -caste was throwing him out of caste and they were breaking or severing all types of relations with him. According to religious books society was divided into four castes. These castes were again divided into sub-castes. Every person has to marry in his own sub-caste. In this form of marriage many changes have come due to the passage of time. According to K.M. Kapadia, “The Hindu community is divided into a number of castes which are endogamous groups and in practice the caste is again divided into a number of sub-castes, each of which is further divided into sub-sections as visa and dasa in terms of locality.”

According to Hoebel, “Endogamy is a social rule which demands that a person should marry within a group of which he is a member.” There are different forms of endogamy available in India and these are given below :

• Tribal Endogamy
• Caste Endogamy
• Class Endogamy
• Sub-caste Endogamy
• Racial Endogamy.

2. Exogamy. Institution of marriage is one of the important Social institutions. Any society cannot give permission to any couple to live as husband and wife without marriage. That’s why every society has made some rules to establish marriage in society. The most important function is the selection of the mate. Exogamy is also one of the rules of mate selection. In many societies the marital relations are forbidden between the persons who are related with each other by blood. According to Sumner, “Endogamy is conservative while exogamy is progressive.” In this way in exogamy marriage is prohibited within the group. Children of one parent are also forbidden to marry.

In Muslims marriage between the relatives of parents is permitted. In the Roman Catholic Church of England marriage with the sister-in-law, after the death of the wife, or Sororate marriage was not allowed. In Australia, boy can marry with the wife of his father if she is not his mother. According to the rule of Exogamy man is not permitted to marry in his caste, clan, Sapraver, Spinda etc. Some of its types are given below :

• Gotra Exogamy.
• Sapraver Exogamy
• Spinda Exogamy
• Village Exogamy
• Totem Exogamy

2. Parties for Selection. It is right that societies have made different rules of selection of mate regarding marriage but other party to do marriage is also necessary. Many ways are there to find other party. The first way is that selection of other party should be done by the relatives of the boy or girl. They should fix the marriage after finding the boy or girl and after looking at their house etc. It is known as arranged marriage. Second way of finding other party is the selecting mate for marriage with the advice of their friends, relatives etc, This type of marriage prevails in higher class of Indian society. Third way is that boy and girl should find their mate themselves and marry with their respective choice: It is known as love marriage.

Relatives and friends play an important role in selection of mate regarding marriage. Parents, in rural areas, even ask their relatives and mediator for marriage so that they could find right match for their child. Brahmins also play an important role at this time because they move from one village to another and they know about the unmarried children of the village. Males of the family take the final decision. If any mediator finds the right match then he is generally rewarded by both the parties. Marriage in one’s own village is not allowed in rural society that’s why match is generally selected out of the clan, village and sparvar. This process is going on for a long time. The importance of mediator has been reduced in modern times and parents are finding themselves the mate of their child in far off places with the help of means of communication and transport.

Generally, parents fix the marriage of their children after asking them for their choice. These days children like to marry with their own choice because of which the trend of love marriages is increasing day by day. Inter caste marriages are also increasing due to love marriages.

3. Criteria of Selection. It is right that there are some rules regarding the selection of the mates and parties are also there. But there are some criteria to determine parties. These criteria are related with other party like family of other party, personal traits, dowry, etc. Their description is given below :

1) Family. In ancient times, more importance was given to the family for marriage instead of boy and girl. It was seen that whether family is fulfilling its religious duties or not. If family was completing its religious duties then that family was considered as good for the family unless it was not considered as fit for the marriage. Status of the family was also considered for the fixation of marriage.

Marriage, in rural society, is not considered as the relation between boy and girl but it is considered as the relation between two families, groups and two villages. Elders of the family play a very important role in fixation of the marriage. Choice of the boy and girl is given very less importance in marriage. Marriage is being done to fulfill social and religious responsibilities. Social status, economic status, size of the family, kinship of the other family are also kept in mind while selecting mate for marriage. With this also kept in mind that how much land other party has.

2) Individual abilities of the mate. Personal traits of the mate are also kept in mind with family while selecting mate for the child. Children, in rural societies, are also getting education these days and that’s why people also give enough importance to the personal traits of the mate. These traits are like character of the mate, age, household works, educational level, income, colour, physique, beauty, nature etc. If people want to find boy for their girl then it is also kept in mind that whether he is drug addict or not or what type of friend circle he has? If boy and girl are not beautiful, are black in colour, are handicapped etc. then very less chances are there of finding mate for them.

3) Dowry. People give dowry to their girl at the time of marriage and this process has been going on from the ancient times. At the time of marriage, parents are giving some gifts to the bridegroom and his relatives while sending their daughter to boy’s house. These gifts are known as dowry. Every family give dowry according to the their economic status and according to the social status of the family of bridegroom. If the economic status of the family is good then they give good dowry but if the economic status of the family is weak then they give less dowry.

This custom is in great demand in modern times and it prevails equally in whole of the Indian society. Yet, according to the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961, giving and taking dowry is a punishable offence but still this process is going on in full swing. Selecuon of mate also becomes limited due to this process. It is so because every one wants to get more and more dowry and every one cannot give more dowry. That’s why around 6,000 girls every year die due to this. This custom also prevails in rural society. While selecting mate, it has been seen that which family can give how much dowry. In this way mate is selected on this given basis; Yet the importance of these rules is reduced due to many factors like increasing education, many laws made by government, effect of wasternization and intercaste marriages are increasing. But still these rules play an important role at the time of marriage.

Question 5.
What do you know about Rural economy? Explain.
Or
Explain the characteristics of Rural economy.
Answer:
If we want to study rural society then first of all we have to understand rural economy because economic base of relations has a great importance in rural society. Land has been given a great importance in rural society because the main base of rural economy is land. 70% of the total population in India is engaged in agriculture or agriculture based occupations and agriculture is directly related with land. Land has direct influence on economic and social structure of rural society.

Because most of the Indian population is engaged in agricultural works, that’s why the economy of our country generally depends upon agriculture. Around half of the total income of the country comes from agriculture related functions. Yet there are many other occupations in villages but they are directly or indirectly related with agriculture. Many castes of a village give their services to many other castes and they get compensation of their service either in the form of money or their share in agriculture production. If people in villages do physical work then they are also related with agriculture like agricultural labourers. In this way we can see that generally most of the occupations in villages are related with agriculture. That’s why features of rural economy are related with either agriculture or land. Features of rural economy are given below :

1. Main Occupation-Agriculture. Main occupation of people of rural society is agriculture and agriculture is the main difference between rural economy and urban economy. The means and way of living for rural people is also agriculture. Ways of living, ideas, habits, thinking etc. of rural people ^Lso depend upon agriculture. The most important means of production in rural society is agriculture and land is considered as the base of social status. Animals, with land, are also considered as the property of the person. Many other occupations like carpenter, blacksmith* artists etc. are also the part of economy of rural society.

2. Production and Method of Production. Agricultural work, in the ancient times in rural societies, was being done with ploughs and oxen but agricultural work, in modern times, is being done with tractors, threshers, combines etc. Farmers grow many types of things like wheat, rice, maize, cotton, sunflower etc. Not only this, they also produce many types of vegetables and fruits. People are also engaged in many other related functions like piggery, poultry, dairy, fishing etc. Rivers, wells, tubewells etc. are being used for irrigation. Generally most of the farmers are used to plough their fields themselves but many farmers also give their land to other farmers on rent for agricultural functions. Production, before green revolution, from land was very less but it has been increased to a great extent after green revolution with the usage of new seeds and fertilizers. *Now farmers are using new seeds and chemical fertilizers to a great extent.

3. Ownership of Land. Many types of systems like Zamindari, Rayotwari, Mahalwari etc. were there in India in ancient times. According to these systems, farmers were only used to do agricultural work on land. They were not the owners of land. But systems were abolished after independence and farmers were made the owners of land. Now farmer is the owner and cultivator of the land. Big farmers are very less in number who have too much land. Marginal or small farmers are more in number who have small pieces of land. But this land is divided in the children of farmers. Many farmers have small pieces of land that they are unable to meet their demands with this much piece of land. That’s why government has started many programmes so as to improve their economic condition.

4. More Population. Rural societies have more population. Around two third part of population of our country lives in villages. Our country has second position in the world after China from the point of view of population. Because most of the people live in rural societies and depends upon agriculture that’s why economy of the country also depends upon agriculture. Half of the total income of our country comes from agriculture or from its related occupations. We hardly can see development in many parts of rural society due to more population.

5. Indebtedness. Another important feature of economy of Indian rural society is the indebtedness of farmers. There are many reasons behind indebtedness of farmers. Rural families are large in size. Yet their income is less but their expenditure is more due to large family. They have to take loan on interest from money lenders to meet their needs because of which they come in the circle of indebtedness. Expenditure of agriculture has been increased to a great extent these days like rates of seeds and fertilizers has been increased, spending on diesel for pumps of irrigation due to unavailability, of electricity. More expenditure on agriculture due to less rain, bad quality of production which forces them to sell their produce on rates less than the minimum support price etc.

Due to these factors farmers are unable to meet their expenditure on cultivation. That’s why they have to take loan either from banks or from money lenders. They are unable to repay their loans due to more rate of interest and slowly and slowly they come under the tjrap of indebtedness. In recent times, farmers are opting to do suicide in many areas of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana due to indebtedness. In this way indebtedness is a very important feature of rural economy.

6. Rural Industries. Another important aspect of rural economy is the availability of rural industries. These rural industries are small in size. Small industries, in ancient times, were- based on caste but rural industries, in modern times, are based on science and technology. Government is also encouraging people to establish small scale industries to give employment to the people Weaving of clothes, stitching, soap industry are some of the examples which are now the part and parcel of rural economy.

7. Production Relations. Institutional relations have a very specific place in agricultural production. Good relations can increase production and bad relations can decrease production. Yet, many changes are coming, in modern times, in institutional relations of agriculture, but still these relations have a great importance in Indian rural economy. Jajmani system is the most important among these relations.

Meaning of Jajman is that one who does service or who perform YAGYA’. With the passage of time, this word was started to be used for those people who accept services of other people. These ancestral relations of acceptance of service of giving service by different castes is known as Jajmani system. According to this system, generally priests, artisans and many other lower castes used to give their services to the people of higher castes, like any brahmin works as a priest for any specific caste, barber gives his service to that caste by cutting their hair and washerman washes their clothes. In this way all the members of that caste are the Jajmans of that brahmin, washerman and barber.

The whole rural economy in Jajmani system revolves around agriculture and farmer. Farmer has the most important place in rural economy and other castes have many related functions of agriculture. Farmer prepares the land for agriculture but other castes give their services for the completion of the whole agricultural process and they take their part from the produce of that land. Blacksmith makes the related tools of agriculture and cobler makes shoes for the farmer. The main feature of Jajmani system is that human needs of life are fulfilled only at the local level. In this way rural economy moves in a proper way with Jajmani system.

The relation of farmer and money lender also has a very important place in rural economy. If we look at the history then we will come to know that the Indian farmer is suppressed under the indebtedness of money lender right from the ancient times. Farmer needs money for many occasions like marriage, death, cultivation and this need is being fulfilled by money lender. It has been said that farmer takes birth under the indebtness of money lender, grows up and dies under it. In this way these relations are very important in rural economy.

Relations of farmer and labourer are also very important. In earlier times labourers used to work for their Jajmans under Jajmani system and farmers used to give some share of the product to these labourers. But now due to the decreasing effect of Jajmani system and increasing effect of money based economy it has brought many changes in these relations. Now contractual relations have come farward instead of Jajmani System. Rural economy also has a direct relationship with nature. If there is a good rain then production will be more but if less rain comes then production will also be less. Even science is unable to reduce the farmer’s dependency upon nature. In this way these relations have an important place in rural economy.

So after looking at these features we can conclude that the economy of rural society mainly depends upon agriculture and every type of relation of rural society is also related with agriculture.

Question 6.
What are the results of Indebtedness? How can we remove this problem?
Answer:
Results of Indebtedness. We can see many results of increasing indebtedness in many villages of India. Some of the results of ‘indebtedness’ are given below :

1. Slavery: The worst result of indebtedness can be seen in the increasing number of landless laborers. Moneylenders take advantage of the ignorance of illiteracy of helpless farmers and take away their land from them. In this way one farmer becomes a laborer and works as a laborer for money lender on his own land. Sometimes a person has to work for money lender to repay his debt and this position is not better than that of a servant. There is one tendency in some village that parents are sending their children to do work for money lenders to repay their loans were: Status of these children is just like slaves. In this way this problem of indebtedness has forced thousands of farmers to live a life of slavery.

2. Increase in Poverty: Another worst result of indebtedness can be seen in the increasing poverty because of which any person comes in the cycle of indebtedness. Then even with all of his efforts he cannot come out of that cycle and will remain poor for his whole life. It becomes very difficult for a person to repay his loan. Even sometimes grandson repays the loan of his grandfather.

3. Deterioration of Agriculture: Position of agriculture also deteriorates due to problem of indebtedness because farmer has to work for money lender on his own land. That’s why they hardly take care of agriculture which they were doing on their own land. Production also suffers with this and power of production of land also decreases with this.

4. Suicide: If any farmer comes under the cycle of indebtedness then he becomes weak day by day because he always remains in tension to repay his loan. Even some people try to do a lot of hard work but when they are unable to get the desired result then their mental condition becomes weak. In this way they commit suicide. Ways to Remove Indebtedness. Many suggestions have come forward to remove this problem and these suggestions are given below :

1. Governmental loan at low interest: Government should provide loans to farmers on a lower rate of interest so that they should be able to repay their loans at lower rate of interest. A system of small installments should be arranged for them to repay their governmental loans.

2. Co-operative societies and banks: Some cooperative societies and cooperative banks should be opened in villages to provide governmental loans at village level. With this farmers can get loans very easily and at very low rate of interest.

3. Arrangement for declaration of bankrupt: Sometimes the loan and interest on that loan become too much that it becomes impossible for the farmer to repay that loan with interest. That’s why arrangements should be made to declare him bankrupt and no one should take possession of his land and he should earn his bread .easily.

4. Laws for preventing dispossession of land: Government should make such laws that if any money lender tries to take possession of the land of the farmer then he should be prevented from doing this.

5. Control over the rate of interest. Money lenders take too much rate of interest from farmers. In some cases it becomes 5-10% per month. Government should fix the minimum and maximum rate of interest to be charged from farmers in villages. If any one tries to charge more then he should be strictly dealt.

6. Checking the accounts of the money lenders. Government should make some laws for money lenders to keep their records properly. These records and registers should be checked time to time. If any discrepancy would be found in the accounts then he should be punished. In this way we can keep a strict check on the problem of indebtedness to a great extent with these measures.

Question 7.
What do you know the concept of Panchayati Raj? Write in detail.
Answer:
There are two ways of developing local areas in our country. Local governments are there for the development of urban areas and panchayati raj institutions are there for the development of rural areas. Institutions of local government are based upon the concept of division of labour because functions here are divided in government and local groups. 70% of the population in our country lives in rural areas. The institution of local government which administers the rural areas is known as Panchayat. Panchayati Raj expresses only the institutional structure of rural area.

When British Empire was established in our country then the whole country was under the control of landlords and Zamindars. In 1935, Indian government passed a law which has given the complete sovereignity to states and the panchayati laws were given a new form. In Punjab, one Panchayat Act was passed in 1939 whose aim was to give some powers to the democratically elected institutions with which they would be able to work at a unit of local administration. On 2nd October 1961 the three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj was applied in the whole country. 73rd constitutional amendment was done in 1992 in which powers were decentralized upto the local level. With this the panchayati raj institutions were given many financial and other types of powers.

Many changes have taken place in Indian rural community during last 66 years. Most of the powers of Indian panchayats were taken away by Britishers. They wanted to run these panchayats according to their own way because of which they applied a new and common legal System in all the villages. Present panchayats are the result of the laws made after the independence.

1. According to A.S. Altekar, an authority on Indian polity, “The village panchayats in ancient India were responsible for various functions such as defence, collection of revenue, imposition of taxes, implementation of programme of public welfare and so on. They are very important institutions of decentralized administration.”

2. According to K. M. Panikar, “These Panchayats are the only permanent basis of ancient Indian history. These institutions have provided a solid base to the prosperity of the country.”

3. According to 4th part of Article 30 of the Constitution, “Organization of village Panchayats, the state shall take steps to organize panchayats, and endow them with such power and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self government.”
Village Panchayats are doing many functions for the development of villages and that’s why there are certain aims of panchayats and these aims are given below :

• The first aim for the establishment of panchayats is to solve the problems of people at local level. These panchayats are finding solutions of problems and quarrels of the people.
• Village Panchayats create the sense of cooperation, love and sympathy among the people so that every member of a village should contribute towards its progress.
• Another aim of establishment of panchayats is to determine the members of panchayats for the smooth functioning of panchayats so that everyone should contribute towards the solution of the problems of the village. Function of public welfare is also completed with this.

Organization Of Village Panchayats:

There are two types of panchayats in the village. First type of panchayats which are elected according to the laws made by government and are formal in nature. Second type of panchayats are informal and they are known as caste panchayats. They don’t have any legal status but they play a very important role in keeping social control. Three types of organization of panchayats exist in our country and these are :

1. GRAM SABHA
All the adult persons of total population, of the village, are the members of Gram Sabha and it is the complete unit of the whole population of the village. This is the basic unit on which the whole structure of our democracy rests. Gram Sabha can be made in that village whose population is more than 250. If population of one village is less than 250 then two villages can jointly make the Gram Sabha. Every adult of the village is the member of Gram Sabha, who has the right to vote. There is one chairman and some members of every Gram Sabha. It is elected for 5 years. Functions of Gram Sabha. Gram Sabha approves the annual budget and the functions to be done for the development of the village and helps in applying these functions. It also helps in doing the functions of social welfare, programmes of adult education and of family’welfare. It also plays an important role in keeping unity in the village.

2. Village Panchayat Or Gram Panchayat

Every Gram Sabha elects one Gram Panchayat from its area. In this way Gram Sabha is an executive institution which elects members for Gram Panchayat. It has one Sarpanch and 5-13 panches. There are certain places in Panchayats which are reserved for backward classes and females. It is generally elected for 5 years but state government can dissolve them even before 5 years if it tries to misuse its powers. If any Gram Sabha is dissolved before completion of its term then all of its position will also come to an end. Village is generally divided in different parts to elect Panches and Gram Panchayat. Then the Panches and Sarpanch are elected by the members of Gram Sabha. One third of the total seats in Gram Panchayat are reserved for women and the seats are also reserved for backward classes according to the ratio of their population in that area. Any governmental official and mentally ill person cannot be elected for panchayat. Gram Panchayat works for the sanitation, recreation, development of industries and means of communication. It also solves the problems of the village.

Functions Of Panchayats:

Gram Panchayat does many functions for the village which are given below :

1. The first important function of Gram Panchayat is to raise the economic and social standard of the people. There are many social evils in villages. Panchayat motivates the people to remove those evils and tries to change their traditional point of view.

2. For allround development of any area, it is necessary that illiteracy should be eradicated from that area and it is the main reason of backwardness of Indian Society. Indian villages are also backward due to this reason. Panchayat tries to open schools in village and motivates the people to send their children in the school. It also arranges the adult education centre to teach the adults of the village.

3. Panchayat of a village also works for the welfare of the women and children of the village. It also arranges for giving education to females. The function of arrangement of good food and entertainment facilities is also of Panchayat.

4. There are no means of recreation in rural areas. That’s why Panchayat also arranges to provide recreational means in village. Panchayat arranges for. films, organizing fairs and the opening up of library in the village.

5. Increase in production is necessary in the agriculture based country. Panchayat tells the people about new techniques of agriculture, arranges for the new seeds and developed fertilizers for them so that their agricultural production could be increased.

6. It is very much necessary to establish small scale industries in villages for its allround development. That’s why Panchayat tries to establish small scale industries in villages with the help of governmental help. It helps in economic progress of the village and people get employment in their villages.

7. Means of irrigation are of great importance in good production of agriculture. Gram Panchayat arranges the wells and tubewells in Gram Panchayat. It also arranges for river water so that the people are able to irrigate their fields.

8. Generally people are fighting in villages. Panchayat tries to solve their problems in village.

9. Except these Panchayat also does many other functions like :

• Function related to dairy, animal rearing, poultry.
• Establishment of small scale industries.
• Arrangement of means of transport and communication.
• Arrangement of informal and formal education.
• Arrangement of cultural activities etc.

Panchayati Raj Act was implemented in India on 21st April 1994. Three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj was implemented with this Act. This Act brought many changes in rural community. Village economy was also’improved with this. Panchayat does every type of function for welfare of village.

3. Nyaya Panchayat
The nature of two persons is not the same all the times. That’s why problems are arising among them. In this way problems between villagers are arising in and they fight with each other. Nyaya Panchayat stops and solves these problem. One Nyaya Panchayat is generally formed for 5-10 Gram Sabhas. Its members are elected and Sarpanch makes one Committee of 5 members. They have the right to ask questions to Panchayat.

4. Panchayat Samiti
Panchayats coming in one block are the members of Panchayat Samiti and Sarpanches of these Panchayats are the members of Panchayat Samiti. Members of Panchayat Samiti are also elected. Panchayat Samiti takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which are coming in its area. It checks the developmental functions of the village and directs the Panchayat for the welfare of the village. It is the second level of Panchayati Raj.

5. Zila Parishad
The highest level of Panchayati Raj is Zila Parishad which takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which are coming in the district. It is an executive institution. Chairman’s of Panchayat Samiti, elected members, members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and Legislative Assemblies are the members of Zila Parishad. All these take care of the developmental functions done in the villages of the district. Zila Parishad does many functions like improvement of agriculture, improvement of land, irrigation, rural electrification, arrangement of seeds and fertilizers, education, industries etc.

Question 8.
Explain the characteristics of Panchayati Raj according to 73rd Constitutional Amendment.
Answer:
73rd Constitutional Amendment was passed by Parliament in December 1992 and was sanctioned by President in April 1993. Panchayati Raj system was established through this constitutional amendment and its characteristics are given below :

1. There was no system of self-administration in Constitution for the local level before 73rd constitutional amendment. A new schedule and new part was added in Constitution through this Amendment. All the arrangements in this schedule and part are related with the Panchayati Raj system that which types of arrangements are there in this new system.

2. Definition of Gram Sabha is given in Constitution with this amendment according to which all the adults of the village, who have the right to vote, will be the members of Gram Sabha. State Legislative Assemblies can arrange Gram Sabha through law and can give them some functions. In this way Gram Sabha . will be established through a law passed by the State Legislative Assembly and it will determine its functions.

3. The definition of Panchayat is also given with the definition of Gram Sabha according to which Panchayat is an institution based on self rule which is established by state governments in rural areas.

4. One system in Constitution is established through this Constitutional amendment that the three-tier Panchayati Raj system will be established of self rule in rural areas. Panchayat will be at village level, Block Samiti at block level and the highest position will be of Zila Parishad at district level but state government can give them any other name.

5. This constitutional amendment says that the district will be divided at Panchayat level through this system and the members of Panchayat, Block Samiti and Zila Parishad will be directly elected by the people through the right of voting by adults of that area.

6. The responsibility of election at different levels, counting of votes and making of voters’ list will be of State Election Commission. This State Election Commission will be nominated by the Governor of that State. Its term, terms and conditions of ervice etc. will be determined according to the rules made by Governor. State Election Commission can be removed in that same way in which Judge of the high court is removed.

7. According to 73rd constitutional amendment the Sarpanch of the village Panchayat will be directly elected by the people.

8. Sarpanch of the village Panchayat can also be removed from his post even before the end of his term and the right of his removal is given to Gram Sabha. Gram Sabha can remove Sarpanch from his post if the Panchayat of that area gives its approval. There should be a majority behind this approval. For this one special meeting should be called and the presence of 50% members of Gram Sabha is necessary for this. If the Gram Sabha will pass the approval of removing Sarpanch from his post then the Sarpanch can be removed from his post.

9. In the same way members of Block Samiti and Zila Parishad will be elected by the people and their Chairman will be elected by the members themselves. Their Chairman can also be removed in that same way the Sarpanch can be removed. Chairman can be removed by two-thirds majority.

10. Some seats on these three tiers will be kept reserved.

• Seats for Scheduled Castes and Tribes will be kept reserved in Panchayats. The number of reserved seats will be according to their ratio in the whole population.
• One-third seats will be kept reserved for women.
• One-third seats in Panchayats, Block Samitis and Zila Parishad will also be kept reserved. With this the l/3rd seats of Chairmen will also be kept reserved for women.

11. The term of these institutions is kept at 5 years. The term of any institution cannot exceed more than 5 years. If the state government comes to know about the misuse of powers by Panchayats then it can dissolve -it even before 5 years. But it should be elected again within 6 months. New elected Panchayat will complete the term of earlier Panchayat.

12. If any person cannot contest an election according to the law of state then he also cannot contest the election. But here is a difference in age. The age of 25 years is necessary to contest the election of state legislative assembly but the age of 21 years is fixed to contest the election of Panchayat.

13. Panchayats have been given some rights and duties according to the law of state legislative assembly. Panchayats have been given some rights to make and apply plans of economic development and social justice.

14. With this State Legislative Assembly can give them some powers to levy small taxes so that they can increase their income. With this state govt, will also give some share of the taxes, imposed by it, to these Panchayats. Grants will also be given as help for the development of the village.

In this way we can see that many important arrangements are kept by 73rd constitutional amendment through Panchayati Raj with which the importance of Panchayati Raj has been increased. Many steps have been taken to make this arrangement more effective.