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Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 5 Bureaucracy (Civil Services) Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 5 Bureaucracy (Civil Services)

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Bureaucracy. Write main characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Or
Define Bureaucracy. Describe main characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Or
Explain the main characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Or
Explain any six characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government.’ The meaning of this word has been changing with the passage of time. This word is widely misinterpreted and it is used to mean arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation. In the words of John A. Weig, “Through distortion and caricature, the term bureaucracy has come to imply bungling, arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation.”

In spite of the distorted meaning of bureaucracy, it has assumed importance in democracy and in a welfare state. This word is used to the maximum to prove the effect of public services. Generally in all the modern states the functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy. Different definitions of bureaucracy are as follows:

1. According to Willoughby, “It is to describe any personnel system of administration composed of a hierarchy of sections, divisions, bureaus and departments.” In a narrow meaning “A body of public servants organised in a hierarchical system which stands outside the sphere of effective public control.”

2. According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”

3. According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of humanity.”

4. According to Joshi, “Bureaucracy is a system of government where power is concentrated into the hands of civil servants.”

5. According to Gladden, “The term Bureaucracy means a regulated administrative system organised as a series of interrelated offices.”

6. According to Paul Appleby, “It is a professional class of technically skilled persons who are organised in an hierarchical way and serve the state in an impartial manner.”

Characteristics of Bureaucracy:
Important characteristics of bureaucracy are as follows:
1. Logical division of functions:
The whole administration is divided on the basis of its duties. The administration is logically divided in hierarchies and system is established.

2. Technical Specialisation:
Technical specialisation is an important feature of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy originated only because of technical specialization. An employee is trained in a particular art and gains proficiency by doing the same work repeatedly and so he becomes a specialist in his field.

3. Hierarchical Principle: All the employees are bound by ‘unity of command’ and bureaucracy is divided in hierarchies.

4. The Legal Framework:
The employees in bureaucracy work in a legal framework and so they become strict and harsh. The administrative laws, rules and decisions are in written form.

5. Political Neutrality:
In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political views hold no value. A bureaucrat has to remain neutral from political view point. They are neither the members of any political party nor they are connected with any of them. The Government may be of any political party, but the bureaucrats have to serve the administration according to their ability.

6. Merit System: Bureaucracy is based on merit system. The employees are selected on the basis of their ability.

7. Permanent Post: The posts of Civil Services are permanent. The employees remain in service till the age of retirement.

Question 2.
Write an essay on the recruitment of Civil Servants.
Answer:
The success and efficiency of administration depends on Civil Servants. An able administration can’t be imagined without proficient employees. But it is very difficult to have honest, capable and hardworking employees. That is why proper recruitment has become a problem in almost all the countries. Recruitment doesn’t merely mean the filling up of vacant posts, but it is a process through which able individuals are attracted towards the vacant posts. Broadly speaking, the recruitment of Civil Servants can be divided into two parts Negative and Positive.

The aim of negative recruitment is to keep clever and incapable persons away from government posts. The recruiting authority formulates such laws that only able individuals get the chance to become its candidates. The aim of positive recruitment is to attract suitable and capable persons for various Government posts.

Every Government tries its best to appoint proficient persons against administrative posts. But several questions regarding recruitment arise such as who should be authorised for recruitment ? Whether the employees should be recruited from outside or inside the office ? What should be the qualifications to fill different posts ? How should the ability of the candidates be determined ?

The administrative officials are selected on merit basis in most of the countries and their selection is completed through four methods mentioned below:
1. Individual decision of the appointing official:
This process leaves the responsibility to determine the ability of candidates on appointing authority. The candidate appears before the appointing official who gathers every information about the candidate through questions and mutual conversation. Thus a suitable candidate is recruited.

2. Testimonials of ability and character:
The ability of the candidates is sufficiently judged from their testimonials. These testimonials are related to Lheir education, character, sports, cultural activities etc.

3. Record of previous experience:
The candidates’ records of previous experience reflect their ability for the appointment against administrative posts.

4. Examinations:
The most popular method to judge the ability of candidates is examination system. There are two types of Examinations to select candidates Competitive Examination and Examination without competition. Competitive Examination has double purpose firstly, it finds out a candidate with minimum required qualification for the post and secondly to ascertain his mental condition from the angle of ability. Non-competitive examination ascertains candidate’s minimum qualification fixed for the post. It is quite obvious that competitive examination should be adopted to select best candidates.

The administrative officials in England are appointed through competitive examination. Interview is essential after the written test. Union Public Service Commission and State Service Commissions have been set up in India to recruit government officials.

Question 3.
Describe main differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive.
Or
Write down the meaning of Political Executive and Permanent Executive and explain in detail the differences between the two.
Answer:
Executive has two parts-Political Executive and Permanent Executive. Political Executive includes President, Ministers, Parliamentary Secretary and they are elected through a definite process and for a definite period. Permanent Executive consists of civil servants, administrative officials and employees and they are retired at a fixed age. Following are the differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive:

1. Difference between the appointments of the two:
The appointment or selection of Political Executive is in the hands of electorates. In Parliamentary form of government, the party with majority votes in the lower house of Parliament is called upon to elect its leader. The leader of the party is installed as a Prime Minister who forms his Cabinet. England and India have this system.

Permanent Executive is called Administrative Service or Civil Service. Competitive Examinations are held to test the ability of candidates. They have to get through written tests and interview. Thereafter a list of successful candidates is prepared to impart training.
Distinction between the two on Political Basis. Political Executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis. Political executive views all the problems from political angle.

On the contrary, civil servant doesn’t take part in politics. Government officials remain indifferent to party politics. They can neither become the members of political parties nor can they contest Parliamentary and Assembly elections.

Question 4.
Explain the verbal meaning of word ‘Bureaucracy’. Explain its role/functions from four aspects in democracy.
Or
What is the role of bureaucracy in Modern Welfare State?
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government.’ The meaning of this word has been changing with the passage of time. This word is widely misinterpreted and it is used to mean arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation. In the words of John A. Weig, “Through distortion and caricature, the term bureaucracy has come to imply bungling, arbitrariness, wastefulness, officiousness and regimentation.”

In spite of the distorted meaning of bureaucracy, it has assumed importance in democracy and in a welfare state. This word is used to the maximum to prove the effect of public services. Generally in all the modern states the functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy. Different definitions of bureaucracy are as follows:

1. According to Willoughby, “It is to describe any personnel system of administration composed of a hierarchy of sections, divisions, bureaus and departments.” In a narrow meaning “A body of public servants organised in a hierarchical system which stands outside the sphere of effective public control.”

2. According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”

3. According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of humanity.”

4. According to Joshi, “Bureaucracy is a system of government where power is concentrated into the hands of civil servants.”

5. According to Gladden, “The term Bureaucracy means a regulated administrative system organised as a series of interrelated offices.”

6. According to Paul Appleby, “It is a professional class of technically skilled persons who are organised in an hierarchical way and serve the state in an impartial manner.”

Characteristics of Bureaucracy:
Important characteristics of bureaucracy are as follows:
1. Logical division of functions:
The whole administration is divided on the basis of its duties. The administration is logically divided in hierarchies and system is established.

2. Technical Specialisation:
Technical specialisation is an important feature of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy originated only because of technical specialization. An employee is trained in a particular art and gains proficiency by doing the same work repeatedly and so he becomes a specialist in his field.

3. Hierarchical Principle: All the employees are bound by ‘unity of command’ and bureaucracy is divided in hierarchies.

4. The Legal Framework:
The employees in bureaucracy work in a legal framework and so they become strict and harsh. The administrative laws, rules and decisions are in written form.

5. Political Neutrality:
In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political views hold no value. A bureaucrat has to remain neutral from political view point. They are neither the members of any political party nor they are connected with any of them. The Government may be of any political party, but the bureaucrats have to serve the administration according to their ability.

6. Merit System: Bureaucracy is based on merit system. The employees are selected on the basis of their ability.

7. Permanent Post: The posts of Civil Services are permanent. The employees remain in service till the age of retirement.

Role/Functions of Bureaucracy:
The influence of bureaucracy on administration has increased a lot. It is difficult to run administration without bureaucracy. Bureaucracy has become vital because modern State is a welfare state and its functions are so vast that they can’t be handled by Ministers alone. The Ministers need civil servants to perform these functions. The role of Bureaucracy can be studied under following heads:

1. Administrative Functions or Role:
Administrative function is the key function of bureaucracy. A minister formulates a policy but the responsibility of implementing the same falls on bureaucracy. Even a good policy can prove worthless in case it is not implemented effectively.

2. To Influence the Policy:
Though policies are framed by political executive, yet bureaucracy contributes a lot to policy-formation on the basis of their ability. The Civil Servants provide statistics to Ministers at the time of framing a policy.

3. Advisory Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays a vital role in advising Political Executive. Since the Ministers possess no technical knowledge of their departments, they depend on the Civil Servants to run administration.

4. Legislative Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays an important role in making legislation. In countries like India and England having Parliamentary form of Governments, most of the bills are presented by Ministers in Parliament. The outlines of these bills are prepared by Permanent employees. The Civil Servants propose various laws to solve social, economic and political problems.

5. Financial Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays a significant role even in financial sphere. Parliament passes a budget every year and the budget is presented by Finance Minister in a Parliamentary system. Though Cabinet forms a policy related to budget, yet its outlines are prepared by bureaucracy. The collection of taxes, expenditure according to budget and other functions related to it are performed by bureaucracy.

6. Co-ordination:
Efficiency of an administration depends upon co-ordination among different departments. This desired co-ordination is established by Civil Servants.

7. Judicial Functions or Role:
Some important judicial functions are performed by Administrative Tribunals. It is so because of the increased number of Administrative Laws and Administrative Adjudication. Thus an administrator not only runs administration, but performs judicial functions also.

8. Public Relation Functions:
Bureaucracy establishes relations with public in various ways to make their policies successful with their co-operation.

9. Stability in Foreign Relations:
The role of bureaucracy in foreign relations is of great importance as it brings stability in foreign relations and policies. Thus bureaucracy has become all the more influential in modern Welfare State. A state has to perform many functions for Public Welfare and the success of these depends upon the efficiency of bureaucracy.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of word Bureaucracy.
Or
Explain the etymological meaning of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from the French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government’. This word is used in these days to prove the effect of public services. The functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy.

• According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”
• According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of inhumanity.”
• According to Joshi, “Bureaucracy is a system of government where power is concentrated into the hands of civil servants.”

Question 2.
Write four major characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has the following characteristics:

• Fixed tenure: The posts of civil servants are permanent. The employees remain in office till the age of retirement. The change in government does not affect the tenure of civil servants.
• Political Neutrality: In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political view holds no value. The bureaucrats have to remain neutral from political viewpoint.
• Merit System: Bureaucracy is based on merit system. The employees are selected on the basis of their ability.
• Permanent Posts: The posts of civil services are permanent.

Question 3.
Mention four defects of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
The three main defects of bureaucracy are:

1. Red Tapism:
Bureaucracy indulges in red tapism. It causes delay in decision making by adopting a rigid attitude toward the application of all rules and regulations according to which the decisions have to be taken.

2. Unresponsive to People’s Demands: Bureaucracy ignores the needs and demands of the people.

3. Conservatism:
Bureaucracy has been a source of conservatism. Bureaucracy believes in traditional ways of administration and it mostly favours status quo in administration. Bureaucracy opposes progressive policies.

4. Bureaucracy is considered as an elite class in the society.

Question 4.
What do you understand by Recruitment?
Answer:
For a layman recruitment is something like picking up persons for filling up jobs lying vacant in some office. Technically speaking, recruitment is not only making appointments but selecting proper and suitable candidates for particular jobs. According to L.D. White, “Recruitment means specific steps taken to attract suitable candidates to apply for examination.”

Question 5.
Write down the three methods of Recruitment.
Answer:
There are two methods of recruitment:
1. Recruitment from within:
Recruitment from within means that recruitment to high post should be made from within the department or from those employees who are already in service. In this method employees get higher post by promotion.

2. Recruitment from without:
Recruitment from without means that recruitment should be made openly. In this method recruitment is done on the basis of merit and any person who is eligible for the post can apply for recruitment. This method is also known as direct method of recruitment.

3. Mixed Method:
These two methods are not mutually exclusive and all governments use both these methods. However, direct recruitment should be the rule at lower level and recruitment to class 1 should be made through competitive examination.

Question 6.
Write four differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive.
Or
Distinguish between Political and Permanent Executive.
Answer:
Following are the main differences between Political Executive and Permanent Executive:
1. Difference between the appointments of the two:
In the democratic countries the political executive is elected directly or indirectly on the basis of adult franchise. On the other hand, permanent executive or civil servants are appointed on the basis of merit. Competitive examinations are held to test the ability of candidates.

2. Distinction between the two on Political Basis:
Political Executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis. Political executive views all the problems from political angle.
On the contrary, civil servants don’t take part in politics. Government officials remain indifferent to party politics. They can neither become the members of political parties nor can they contest Parliamentary and Assembly elections.

3. Difference on the basis of Term:
Political executive undergoes a change according to the change in politics. On the other hand, civil servants remain in office till a definite age. Administrative services are not affected by change in political executive. Civil servants retire at a fixed age.

4. Political executive owes responsibility to parliament and people for all its actions whereas it is not so in the case of permanent executive.

Question 7.
Write down four merits of good Bureaucracy.
Answer:
A good bureaucracy has the following qualities:
1. Ability: The civil servants should be able and experienced.

2. Public Interest:
The civil servants should take care of public interest. They should always attach more importance to national interest than personal interest.

3. Impartial:
The most important trait of a good civil service is that it should be impartial. It should not be connected with a particular party. It should remain aloof from all political activities.

4. Bureaucrats should be honest and selfless.

Question 8.
Bureaucracy is known as ‘the backbone of Administration’. Why?
Or
What is the importance of Bureaucracy in Democracy?
Answer:
The importance of civil services is increasing day by day in modern democratic states. Bureaucracy or civil servants are the eyes, ears, hands and brains of public administration. It has rightly been remarked as the backbone of the administration. We can prove this with the help of following logics:

• The civil servants provide continuity to public administration.
• The role of civil servants in foreign relations is of great importance as it brings stability in foreign relations and policies.
• The civil servants act as a link between the government and the people.
• The civil servants provide expert knowledge to ministers.

Question 9.
What is the meaning of permanent executive?
Answer:
Executive has two parts political executive and permanent executive. The part of the executive which holds office on the basis of its education or qualifications is called the permanent executive. Permanent executive consists of civil servants, administrative officials and employees and they are selected on the basis of merit system. The civil servants retire at a fixed age and they work under the supervision and direction of political executive.

Question 10.
Mention any four functions of Political Executive.
Or
Explain the role of Political Executive in a democratic state.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of political executive in a democratic state:
1. Administrative Function:
The main function of the political executive is , maintenance of law and order. The political executive enforces the laws enacted by the legislature and maintains peace in the state. The executive is to see that all the laws are properly obeyed and respected and those who break the laws are punished.

2. Formulation of Policies:
Formulation of policies is an important function of the political executive. Executive decides the internal and external policies of the nation and runs the administration on the basis of that policy.

3. Powers of Appointment and Removal:
Political executive makes many appointments. In India, Judges of the Supreme Court, High Courts, Ambassadors, Advocate General, Members of the Union Public Service Commission, Members of the Finance Commission etc. are appointed by the President. Political executive also enjoys the power to remove top officials of the administration.

4. Functions Regarding Foreign Relations:
Political executive determines the foreign policy of the country. Political executive also decides the relations with other countries. For this purpose political executive makes various international agreements and treaties.

Question 11.
Write four functions of good Bureaucracy.
Or
Write any four functions of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Without bureaucracy it is not possible to run the administration. The main functions of bureaucracy are as given below:
1. Administrative Function or Role:
Administrative function is the key function of bureaucracy. A minister formulates a policy but the responsibility of implementing the same falls on bureaucracy. Even a good policy can prove worthless in case it is not implemented effectively.

2. To Influence the Policy:
Though policies are framed by political executive, yet bureaucracy contributes a lot to policy formation on the basis of their ability. The civil servants provide statistics to Ministers at the time of framing policy.

3. Advisory Functions or Role:
Bureaucracy plays a vital role in advising political executive. Since the Ministers possess no technical knowledge of their departments, they depend upon the civil servants to run the administration.

4. The civil servents propose various laws to solve social, economic and political problems.

Question 12.
Explain the spoil system as a method of recruitment of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
The spoil system as a method of recruitment has been in practice for a long time in U.S.A. and some other countries some time ago. By this system recruitment of civil servants goes on political basis. After general elections, the government which comes into existence starts recruiting those persons who helped at the time of elections. The supporters of defeated party immediately resign from their posts. The newly formed government appoints her supporters on those posts. In this method the tenure of the civil servants goes with the term of the government. This method of recruitment is very defective because the base of recruitment is political and not the ability.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Political Executive? Enumerate its four functions.
Or
What do you mean by Political Executive?
Answer:
Political executive includes President, Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries. They are elected through a definite process and for a definite period. Political executive is elected purely on political basis. Political executive is responsible for all its actions to the Parliament and the people.

Functions of Political Executive.
Following are the main functions of political executive in a democratic state:
1. Administrative Function:
The main function of the political executive is , maintenance of law and order. The political executive enforces the laws enacted by the legislature and maintains peace in the state. The executive is to see that all the laws are properly obeyed and respected and those who break the laws are punished.

2. Formulation of Policies:
Formulation of policies is an important function of the political executive. Executive decides the internal and external policies of the nation and runs the administration on the basis of that policy.

3. Powers of Appointment and Removal:
Political executive makes many appointments. In India, Judges of the Supreme Court, High Courts, Ambassadors, Advocate General, Members of the Union Public Service Commission, Members of the Finance Commission etc. are appointed by the President. Political executive also enjoys the power to remove top officials of the administration.

4. Functions Regarding Foreign Relations:
Political executive determines the foreign policy of the country. Political executive also decides the relations with other countries. For this purpose political executive makes various international agreements and treaties.

Question 14.
What is the meaning of Hierarchical organisation of Bureaucracy?
Answer:
Hierarchy means the control of higher authority over his subordinates. When many people work in an organisation it is necessary it stipulates who will issue instructions and to whom. As a result of this process, the organisation is divided into many levels. Every level is responsible to its higher level and acts upon the instruction of its higher level. According to White, “To fix the relation between the highest to lowest employee; is essential in an organisation. According to Pfiffner, “By Hierarchy principle we mean the connection of Authority and Power with their immediate superiors and juniors in such a way that the Head is small and base is expanded.”

Question 15.
Write down four characteristics of Political Executive.
Answer:
Following are the main characteristics of Political Executive:

1. Appointment by the Electorate:
The appointment or selection of political executive is in the hands of electorate. In parliamentary form of government, the party with majority votes in the lower house of Parliament is called upon to elect its leader. The leader of the party is installed as the Prime Minister who forms his Cabinet.

2. Appointment on Political Basis:
Political executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis. Political executive views all the problems from political angle.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning of word Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has been derived from the French word ‘Bureau’ which means desk or writing table. Hence bureaucracy means ‘Desk Government’. The functions of the government are carried out by those officials who possess administrative ability and understanding of administrative problems. This body of officials is called bureaucracy.

Question 2.
Mention any two definitions of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
1. According to Marshall E. Dimock, “Bureaucracy means specialisation of hierarchies and long lines of communication.”
2. According to Max Weber, “A system of administration characterized by expertness, impartiality and the absence of inhumanity.”

Question 3.
Mention any two major characteristics of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy has the following characteristics:
1. Fixed tenure:
The posts of civil servants are permanent. The employees remain in office till the age of retirement. The change in government does not affect the tenure of civil servants.

2. Political Neutrality:
In bureaucracy, an employee’s personal and political view holds no value. The bureaucrats have to remain neutral from political viewpoint.

Question 4.
Mention two defects of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Following are the three main defects of bureaucracy:
1. Red Tapism. Bureaucracy indulges in red tapism:
It causes delay in decision making by adopting a rigid attitude toward the application of all rules and regulations according to which the decisions have to be taken.

2. Unresponsive to People’s Demands: Bureaucracy ignores the needs and demands of the people.

Question 5.
What do you understand by Recruitment?
Answer:
For a layman recruitment is something like picking up persons for filling up jobs lying vacant in some office. Technically speaking, recruitment is not only making appointments but selecting proper and suitable candidates for particular jobs.

Question 6.
Distinguish between Political and Permanent Executive.
Answer:
1. Difference between the appointments of the two. In the democratic countries the political executive is elected directly or indirectly on the basis of adult franchise. On the other hand, permanent executive or civil servants are appointed on the basis of merit.

2. Distinction between the two on Political Basis. Political Executive is completely mixed with political parties as it is elected on political basis.On the contrary, civil servants don’t take part in politics.

Question 7.
Mention any two merits of good Bureaucracy.
Answer:
A good bureaucracy has the following qualities:

• Ability: The civil servants should be able and experienced.
• Public Interest: The civil servants should take care of public interest. They should always attach more importance to national interest than personal interest.

Question 8.
What is the importance of Bureaucracy in Democracy?
Answer:

• The civil servants provide continuity to public administration.
• The role of civil servants in foreign relations is of great importance as it brings stability in foreign relations and policies.

Question 9.
What is the meaning of permanent executive?
Answer:
Executive has two parts-political executive and permanent executive. The part of the executive which holds office on the basis of its education or qualifications is called the permanent executive. Permanent executive consists of civil servants, administrative officials and employees and they are selected on the basis of merit system.

Question 10.
Write down any two functions of Political Executive.
Answer:
1. Administrative Function:
The main function of the political executive is maintenance of law and order. The political executive enforces the laws enacted by the legislature and maintains peace in the state. The executive is to see that all the laws are properly obeyed and respected and those who break the laws are punished.

2. Formulation of Policies:
Formulation of policies is an important function of the political executive. Executive decides the internal and external policies of the nation and runs the administration on the basis of that policy.

Question 11.
Write any two functions of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
1. Administrative Function or Role:
Administrative function is the key function of bureaucracy. A minister formulates a policy but the responsibility of implementing the same falls on bureaucracy. Even a good policy can prove worthless in case it is not implemented effectively.

2. To Influence the Policy:
Though policies are framed by political executive, yet bureaucracy contributes a lot to policy formation on the basis of their ability.

Question 12.
What do you mean by Political Executive?
Answer:
Political executive includes President, Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries. They are elected through a definite process and for a definite period. Political executive is elected purely on political basis. Political executive is responsible for all its actions to the Parliament and the people.

Question 13.
Write down two merits of Direct recruitment of Bureaucracy.
Answer:

• Democratic: It upholds the democratic principle.
• Wider field: It provides wider field of recruitment.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which language the word “Bureaucracy” has been derived?
Answer:
Latin Language.

Question 2.
Explain the meaning of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy is that form of administration wherein the tasks of administration are performed by those civil and administrative officials who sit in chair and work on the table.

Question 3.
Who developed the Concept of Bureaucracy?
Answer:
Max Weber developed the concept of bureaucracy.

Question 4.
Write any one definition of bureaucracy.
Answer:
According to Paul H. Appleby, “Bureaucracy is a professional class of technically skilled persons who are organised in an hierarchical way and serve the state in an impartial manner.”

Question 5.
Mention any one characteristic of bureaucracy.
Answer:
Bureaucracy is organised on hierarchical basis.

Question 6.
Mention any one function of bureaucracy.
Answer:
To cooperate with the ministers.

Question 7.
Explain the meaning of Political Executive.
Answer:
Political Executive is directly or indirectly elected by the people. No specific educational or technical qualification is fixed for the Political Executive.

Question 8.
“Civil Service is a professional body of officials permanent, hard and skilled.” Who said it?
Answer:
Finer.

Question 9.
Which mode of recruitment is regarded as ‘Spoil System’ for Bureaucracy?
Answer:
Recruitment based on Politics is regarded as ‘Spoil System’ for Bureaucracy.

Question 10.
Write the meaning of Permanent Executive.
Answer:
Permanent Executive is another name for administrative services or administrative officials.

Question 11.
Mention any one difference between Political Executive and Permanent Executive.
Answer:
The base of Political Executive is political whereas political impartiality is the main characteristic of Permanent Executive.

Question 12.
Write any one attribute of good bureaucracy.
Answer:
It should be appointed on the basis of merit.

Question 13.
Write any one merit of direct recruitment of Bureaucracy.
Answer:
It is based on Democratic method.

Fill in The Blanks

1. The word ‘Bureaucracy’ has been derived from ………………………. language.
Answer:
Latin

2. ………………………. developed the concept of bureaucracy.
Answer:
Max Weber

3. In ………………………. the principle of merit was adopted in England.
Answer:
1857

4. In India in ………………………. merit was made the basis of recruitment.
Answer:
1853

5. Bureaucracy is organised on ………………………. basis.
Answer:
hierarchical.

True Or False Statement

1. Bureaucracy has been derived from Greek language.
Answer:
False

2. David Easton developed the concept of bureaucracy.
Answer:
False

3. Bureaucracy is organised on hierachical basis.
Answer:
True.

4. Permanent executive is another name for administrative services.
Answer:
True.

5. In India in 1909 merit was made the basis of recruitment.
Answer:
False

6. Political executive is directly or indirectly elected by the people.
Answer:
True.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
The word ‘Bureaucracy’ is derived from which language?
(a) English
(b) Latin
(c) French
(d) Greek.
Answer:
(c) French

Question 2.
In French language, what is the meaning of word ‘Bureau’?
(a) Government
(b) Political Parties
(c) State
(d) Desk.
Answer:
(d) Desk.

Question 3.
To whom Bureaucracy gives advice?
(a) Parliament
(b) Political Parties
(c) Ministers
(d) Judiciary.
Answer:
(c) Ministers

Question 4.
Who acts as a link between Public and Government?
(a) Parliament
(5) Religious leaders
(c) Judiciary
(d) Government Officials.
Answer:
(d) Government Officials.

Question 5.
In which of the following countries is committed Bureaucracy?
(a) England
(b) Switzerland
(c) China
(d) U.S.A.
Answer:
(c) China

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 4 Political Ideas of Mahatma Gandhi Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 4 Political Ideas of Mahatma Gandhi

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Describe Political Ideas of Gandhiji in detail.
Or
Explain briefly the Political Ideology of Mahatma Gandhi.
Answer:
Gandhiji’s great contribution lies in the fact that he enunciated his whole political philosophy in the religious background. His philosophy has a sound religious background. Roman Rolland writes, “To understand Gandhiji’s activities it should be realised that his doctrine is like a huge edifice composed of two different floors. Below is the solid ground work of the basic foundation of religion. On this vast and unshakable foundation is based his political and social campaign.”

Gandhism is not a set of doctrine or dogma rules or regulations, injunctions or inhibitions, but it is a way of life. It indicates a new attitude or restates an old one towards life’s issues and offers ancient solution for modern problems. There is no ism in Gandhi. Ism means a distinctive doctrine. Gandhiji never claimed finality for his opinions. He was always experimenting with truth. In 1936 Gandhiji observed.

“There is no such thing as Gandhism and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the central truth to our daily life and problems. The opinions I have found and conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow I have nothing to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills. All I have done is to try experiments in both on as vast a scale as I could do. In doing so I have sometimes erred and learnt by my error well all my philosophy, if it may be called by that pretentious name, is contained in what I have said. You will not call it Gandhism, there is no, ‘ism’ about it.”

Following are the main political ideas of Gandhiji:
1. Spiritualisation of Politics:
Gandhiji’s political ideas were influenced by religion. Gandhiji had full faith in religion. He was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. Gandhiji was fully convinced that no civilization can endure for a long time unless it has adopted the higher values of life which are essentially spiritual in character. Gandhiji was a devotee of God. He said that all the religions are equal. The religion of each nation is as good as the religion of any other nation. He used to say, ‘God is Truth and Truth is God.’ Therefore to realize God we must realize truth and stick to truth under all circumstances.

The search of truth is the search of God. Regarding religion Gandhiji said, “It is permanent element in human nature which counts no cost too great in order to find full expression and which leaves the soul restless until it has found itself, knows its Maker, and appreciates the true correspondence between maker and itself.”

2. Faith in Truth:
Gandhiji was a great devotee of truth. He used to say, “God is Truth and Truth is God.” Therefore, to realize God we must realize truth and stick to truth under all circumstances. The search of truth is the search of God. The search of truth is a part of the very nature of man.

3. Faith in Ahimsa or Non-violence:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa as a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire. Cowardice is worse than violence A coward is less than man. He does not deserve to be a member of society of men and women. Non-violence is no negative force. It is a force which is more positive than electricity and more powerful than ether The highest violence can be met by the highest non-violence.”

However, Gandhiji recognised that absolute Ahimsa being a perfect stage is the attribute of God alone. Non-violence is an effort to abandon the violence that is inevitable in life. The religion of Ahimsa consists in allowing others the maximum of inconvenience to us, even at the risk of life.

4. Gandhian Technique:
Gandhiji favoured the use of non-violent methods for changing the present social structure. He was of the opinion that noble aims can be attained by noble meAnswer: He said that first of all the individual should try to discover truth and he should discover it by making use of non¬violent meAnswer: It is not enough that the ends we follow should be moral and good, it is equally important that the means we use for their achievement should also be good and moral.

According to Gandhiji, there is no wall of separation between means and ends. Good means are indispensable for the realization of a noble end. To quote Gandhiji “As the means so the end.” So Gandhiji believed that “If one takes care of the means the end will take care of itself.” Hence his repeated insistence that our means must be as pure as our end. Mahatma Gandhi attached great importance to the purity of meAnswer: He said that good means must be adopted for good ends because in the long run even the means will have their effect on the end. Bad means will poison the good end. He advocated the method of Satyagraha for facing all the evils.

5. Satyagraha:
The idea and practice of Satyagraha constitutes the heart and the soul of Gandhism and is Gandhiji’s unique and distinctive contribution. According to him even a mighty empire could be shaken through Satyagraha and non-violence. Gandhiji defines Satyagraha as the soul force. Literally Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth. It is the vindication of truth, not by the infliction of suffering on the opponent but by self-suffering.

Satyagraha is not passive resistance but it is a moral weapon based on superiority of our soul-force over physical force. Satyagraha can be defined as action based on truth, love and non-violence. It completely eschews untruth and violence in every form. It means the exercise of the purest soul force against all injustice, oppression and exploitation. Suffering and truth are attributes of soul-force. In wider sense Satyagraha includes all constructive, reforming activities and all acts of service. It is a weapon of the strongest and the bravest. Non-co-operation, Hartals and strikes, Picketing, Social boycott, Hunger strike, Civil disobedience, Hijrat etc. are forms of Satyagraha.

6. State is Means and Individual is an End:
Gandhism regards state as a means and individual as an end. State originated for the sake of man and state is an instrument for the welfare of individual. Gandhiji wanted the state to be a ‘Service State’. Whenever the state abuses its authority the people should non-violently resist its authority.

7. Stateless Society:
Gandhiji said that his main aim was to establish an ideal society or Ram Rajya. Gandhiji said that the state represents force and violence and therefore, he wanted to establish such a society where the need of the state is not felt. In an ideal society the people would not require large armies and police forces to keep law and order but the people of their own accord would respect the laws of the society and work for the general welfare.

8. Panchayati Raj:
Gandhiji believed in the decentralization of authority and he advocated the establishment of Panchayati Raj. He held that the village Panchayats should be powerful and an effective unit of democracy. Village Panchayat should have an adequate power to control and serve the villages. He wanted the village Panchayats to be free from official interference and control. The Panchayats should also be free from the influence of the party system.

9. Democratic System:
Gandhism supported the democratic system of government and called it an ideal type of government. He had a deep faith in democracy. He wanted to establish social and economic equality in society. Gandhiji wanted the government to be elected by the people but at the same time he wanted that only those persons should have the right to vote who earn their bread by their own labour. He was of the opinion that fundamental rights should be granted to all.

10. Sphere of State activity:
Gandhiji considered the State as a necessary immoral institution. He said that the State should perform minimum functions. The state should enjoy only limited power. A powerful state is a horrible state. He regarded self-government as maximum vote freedom from government control. Like Thoreau, Gandhiji too held that, “that government is best which governs the least.’ The State should not interfere in the activities of the individual. He said that the existing system of law and justice is defective. Justice should be administered through the Panchayat.

In an ideal society there is no need of police, military and judiciary. Gandhiji said, “I look upon an increase in the power of the State with the greatest fear, because although while apparently doing good by minimising exploitation it does the greatest harm to mankind by destroying individual liberty which lies at the root of all progress.”

11. Secular State:
In the ideal society nobody will be discriminated against on the basis of caste, creed, colour, religion and blood. He favoured the idea of a Secular State. He was of the opinion that even if all the people in the State have the same religion the State should not interfere in the religion of the people. He was of the opinion that religion is a personal affair of the individual and the State should practise neutrality in this respect. No religion should be given special privileges by the State.

12. Economic Views:
Gandhiji preached that the rich should only use so much of their riches as is necessary for carrying on their day-to-day life and treat the rest of their wealth as a trust of the people held by them and use the same for general welfare. He was of the opinion that the employer and the employee were the partners in an enterprise for the common good. He was against hostile attitude on the part of either. Gandhiji said that Trusteeship is a non-violent method of solving the problems of richness in society. According to this principle the rich should not consider themselves the owners of wealth but as the trustees of society. For the wealth in their hands, they should justify the ‘trust’ given to them by the society. They should spend it in the way in which the interests of the society are best promoted.

13. More importance to duties:
Gandhism attached more importance to duties than to rights. According to Gandhiji the right to perform one’s duties was the only right that was worth living for and dying for. To quote Gandhiji, ‘The true source of right is duty.”

14. Gandhism opposed the principle of majority:
Gandhiji believed in democracy but he opposed the principle of majority. According to Gandhiji majority should run the government with the cooperation of the minorities. Majority should respect the views of minorities.

15. No Conflict between Nationalism and Internationalism:
In Gandhism there is no conflict between nationalism and internationalism. According to Gandhiji, “It is impossible for one to be an internationalist without being a nationalist.” Gandhiji did not believe in the isolation of one country from the rest of the world. He never ignored the higher interests of humanity but at the same time he felt that his first duty was to serve the people of India. If there is any conflict between nationalism and internationalism it is because of the fact that we are selfish and regard the interest of our own nation as supreme. Nationalism in Gandhian concept does not mean just a sentiment of hatred for others. It means love for the people of one’s own country and love for the people of other countries also.

16. Rights and Duties:
Gandhiji wholly agrees with the significance of rights both in the life of a man and in the life of a nation but he believes that the rights and duties are inseparable and must go hand in hand. But Gandhism attached more importance to duties than to rights. Gandhiji held that the right to perform one’s duty was the only right that was worth living for and dying for. Rights accrue only to those persons who were willing to serve the state to which they belong. In Gandhiji’s own words, “The true source of right is duty. If we discharge our duties, rights will not be far to seek.

If leaving duties unperformed, we run after rights, they will escape us like a will-o-the wisp. The more we pursue them, farther they will fly.” Conclusion. The ideas of Gandhiji exercised great influence not only in India but in other countries also, but his ideas also came under criticism. Many of his ideas are not practical. His ideal state is indeed pleasant and attractive but it is not possible to put it into practice.

Question 2.
Describe the methods of Satyagraha of Mahatma Gandhi Ji.
Or
Write down Gandhiji’s views about Satyagraha.
Answer:
The concept of Satyagraha is heart and soul of Gandhism. For Gandhiji Satyagraha is an attempt to introduce religion into politics. Truth for Gandhi is God. Thus, a satyagrahi is a man of God. To put it more correctly, Satyagraha is bringing “God into Politics.”

Meaning Of Satyagraha:
Literally ‘Satyagraha’ means ‘holding on to truth’ or ‘insistence on truth’ or ‘firmness on truth’. It is ‘agraha’ or moral presssure for the sake of truth. It is a technique of resisting all that is evil, unjust, impure or untrue by love, self-suffering, self-purification and appealing to the divine spirit in the soul of the oppponent. Gandhi calls it as a love force’ or soul force.’

Satyagraha is a way of life and a satyagrahi is to live a life of truth. Truth and Ahimsa are the two guiding-principles of a Satyagrahi. In this sense Jesus Christ, Satyawadi Harish Chandra, Prahlada and Socrates can be called true satyagrahis.

1. Satyagraha as a Political Method:
Gandhi used Satyagraha as a political method to fight against British imperialism. It is a method of resisting evil through soul-force or non-violence. It is a way of fighting by the means of non-violence. Gandhi calls satyagraha as an all-sided sword; for “it can be used anyhow, it blesses him who uses it and him against whom it is used.”

2. Satyagraha means an appeal to morality and reason:
Primarily, Satyagraha is a case of appealing to the reason and conscience of the opponent by inviting suffering on oneself. The objective is to change the heart of the opponent and make him one’s willing friend. It is based on the idea that moral appeal to the heart and conscience is more effective than an appeal based on the threat of bodily pain or violence.

3. Satyagraha is different from Passive Resistance:
According to Gandhi, Satyagraha is different from Passive Resistance as a positive and negative thing. Passive Resistance is a negative thing, it is a weapon of the weak and does not exclude the use of force or violence, whereas Satyagraha is a positive thing, it is a weapon of the strong and excludes the use of violence in any shape of form. Satyagraha emphasises inner purity and it can be practised at all levels domestic, social and political, while passive resistance is mainly applied at the political level.

4. Satyagraha is different from strike:
Sometimes Satyagraha is explained in terms of strike. But the reality is that Gandhi was never in favour of strikes. Strike and Satyagraha are not identical.
Strike is narrow in its objective and based on the selfish motives of an individual or a group of persons. But Satyagraha is a moral weapon, it aims at changing the heart of the opponent. Besides, strike consists of coercion, force, sabotage and stresses. But satyagraha on the other hand has it two assumptions truth and non-violence. Strike is based on opportunism and it has material gains in view but Satyagraha expels both.

Some Essential Conditions of Satyagraha
Gandhiji laid the following conditions for Satyagraha :
1. There can be no satyagraha for an ‘unjust cause’. By its defintion satyagraha is a commitment to ‘upholding of truth’.
2. Satyagraha excludes the use of violence in any shape or form, whether in thought, speech or deed. A satyagrahi must be non-violent in relation to others.
3. A satyagrahi must have the capacity or willingness to suffer. One who does not have the capacity of suffering, should not attempt satyagraha.
4. No satyagraha should be launched without disciplined satyagrahis.
5. A satyagrahi must have courage and patience, initiative and resourcefulness, a spirit of research and readiness to take risks.
6. Satyagraha cannot be launched for personal gains but for social good. The aim of a satyagrahi should be the service of mankind.
7. A satyagrahi must have an unshakable faith in God.
8. A satyagrahi should treat his opponent as a member of his family.
9. A satyagrahi should be ready to make honourable agreement or compromise with the opponent.

Different Forms or Methods of Satyagraha:
According to Gandhiji, satyagraha can take different forms like non-co-operation, fasting, civil disobedience, hijrat, picketing strike etc. They may also be called as various techniques or methods of satyagraha.

1. Non-Co-operation:
Non-co-operation means withdrawing co-operation to the government. When the government becomes corrupt and it fails to perform its duties towards the people, then, according to Gandhi, people should withdraw their support from the government. The students should boycott the schools and colleges ; lawyers should boycott the courts, people should refuse to accept titles, to serve army and the police and to pay taxes. But, non-co-operation must exclude the use of violence of any type. It must be based on love and not on hatred. It should not lead to anarchy, disorder, violence and ill-will.

2. Civil Disobedience:
Civil Disobedience is an extreme type of non-cooperation. It means mass resistance on non-violent basis when all negotiations and constitutional methods have failed. It is called civil disobedience because it is non-violent resistance by the people who are ordinarily law-abiding citizens of the state. On the part of the people, civil- disobedience demands—a disciplined group action, unlimited capacity for suffering and strict obedience to leaders.

3. Fasting:
Fasting is the last weapon for a satyagrahi. It should be undertaken as the last resort. It should be in the nature of prayer for purity and strength and power from God. It is a method to be used to awaken the sleeping conscience of the wrong doer.

4. Strike:
Strike or hartal is another method of Satyagraha. The workers should organise themselves in every industry to fight against injustice of any type. But according to Gandhi there are three essentials of strike. Firstly, strike should not be frequent, otherwise it would cease to be effective. Secondly, strike should be voluntry. Workers should not be forced to participate in it. Thirdly, it should be peaceful and non-violent.

5. Hijrat:
Hijrat implies voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. It means that a person who does not have power to become a Satyagrahi, should leave the place.

6. Picketing:
It is a method of moral persuasion. By way of picketing in front of the house or shops, the owners can be persuaded to change their views.

Conclusion:
By developing the concept of satyagraha in various forms, Gandhi has shown the ways to overcome violence by non-violence. It is a substitute for brute force with moral force. Here, Gandhian approach is mainly psychological. According to him, the most effective way of winning an enemy is to allow the opponent’s anger spend itself, bum itself out. By resisting him one only feeds his anger, whereas by suffering silently we compel him to review his actions.

Question 3.
Explain the main features of Gandhiji’s Ideal State.
Or
Write down the features of Mahatma Gandhiji’s Ideal State.
Or
Write down the characteristics of the Ideal State of GandhiJi.
Ans:
As a philosophical anarchist Gandhi rejects the state as such. He regards the existing state as an evil on ethical, moral and economic grounds. In his words, “State represents violence in a concentrated and organised form. The individual has a soul but the state is a soul-less machine….”
Like Marx, Gandhi imagines an Ideal Society without state and class struggle. He imagines a society in which there is no place for state, police, army, machines, violence and power. According to Gandhi, “the existing State damages the moral
values of individual action It uses force, works for the rich and influential only.” So, for Gandhi’s modern state is an evil. He wants to replace it with an ideal state or Ram Rajya.

Ideal State:
The ‘Ideal State’ of Gandhi is the state of ‘enlightened anarchy’ where social life becomes so perfect as to be self-regulated. In such a state everyone is his own ruler. He rules himself in such a manner that he is never a hindrance to his neighbour.” In Gandhian ideal state, therefore, “there is no political power, there is no state”. It is a “state of statelessness.”

In short, Gandhian Ideal State or Ideal Society will have the following features.
1. Village as a Unit of Ideal State:
The ideal state will, according to Gandhi, be a federation of more or less self-sufficing and self-governing village communities. It will be an ideal society based on the principles of non-violence and peaceful co-existence. The individuals, continuously aware of Spiritual Eeality will live a life of simplicity and renunciation. In this ideal society there will be no need for police or military force. Every village will be governed by Panchayat having full powers.

2. Organisation on the Principle of Decentralisation:
Instead of centralisation there will be decentralisation. This decentralisation will be of two types, (i) Economic and (ii) Political. From political decentralisation, Gandhi means that the state authority shall be reduced to the minimum, and maximum authority shall be given to the village communities. In the economic sphere, the decentralisation would imply the abolition of large scale industry and establishment of cottage and small scale industry.

3. Minimum Functions of the Government:
Gandhi does not favour more functions of the government. According to him, that government is best which governs the least. Individual should look after his own welfare. Speaking of his ideal society, he said in 1931: “Ideal Society is the state of enlightened anarchy. In such a state everyone is his own ruler ” There is no political power because there is no state. But the ideal is never fully realised in life. Hence, the classical statement of Thoreaun that “that Government is best which governs the least,” is correct regarding functions of government.

4. A Non-violent State:
Gandhian ideal state will be a non-violent state. The word non-violent state was used by Gandhi himself in ‘Harijan’ where he wrote in 1940, ‘The ideal non-violent state will be an ordered anarchy.” It will be a purest form of democracy based on non-violence. It will be a federation of satyagrahi village communities.

5. Role of Non-possession, Bread-labour and Swadeshi:
Gandhi lays stress on non-possession, bread-labour and swadeshi. The first two imply voluntary poverty, village industries and common people owning the means of production and having the capacity to resist injustice. Swadeshi means self-dependency and the use of local-made goods.

6. Role of Machines, Doctors, Courts etc:
Gandhi is not against machinery as such but he is against centralised mass production and profit motive. Centralised production leads to concentration of power and exploitation. Hence, according to Gandhi, in ideal state there will be no place for heavy transport, courts, lawyers, the modern system of medicines and big cities. Village Panchayats will administer justice. There will be no mass production of drugs. Gandhi advocated Indian yogic exercises for mental, moral and physical health.

7. Relations between Individual and Society:
To Gandhi society is just like a family and the relations between individual and society is one of close interdependence. Hence, in Gandhian ideal state there will be total harmony between individual and the state. Both will work for each other. However, Gandhi gives more importance to individual. In his philosophy individual comes first.

8. Role of Dharma:
In Gandhian ideal state ‘Dharma’ will play a very important role. But, ‘Dharma’ according to Gandhi, is identified with ‘righteousness’ or justice. The function of Dharma will be to hold together harmoniously the social order and to act as a guide to individual conscience.

9. Spiritualised Democracy:
Gandhian ideal state will be a spiritualised democratic state. The principle of equality will be applied in every sphere of society. The law of‘Varna’ and the ideals of bread-labour and non-possession will bring about complete social and economic equality. There will be no exploitation of one class by the other. Everybody will be his own master. Corruption and hypocricy will be minimised. The qualification for voters would be neither property nor position but manual work.

10. Role of Secularism:
Gandhian ideal state will be a secular state. There will be no religion known to be a ‘state-religion’. Everyone living in the state shall be allowed to adopt, practise and propagate religion of his / her choice.

11. Sticking to the ancestral profession:
In ideal state each one shall stick to the profession of his ancestors unless there were very strong reasons for a change. In this way the experience and knowledge shall pass from one generation to the other.

12. Unnecessary wealth not allowed:
In his ideal state, Gandhi felt that everyone will keep only what was required by him for his day to day life. No one would be allowed to keep unnecessary wealth or surplus goods. The rich would be persuaded to have only what was their minimum basic necessity and distribute rest of the wealth among the poor and the needy.

13. Emphasis on Duties:
In ideal state greater importance will be given to the duties. Everybody will do his ‘Karma’ or duty sincerely. The spirit of social service will govern people’s actions. The performance of duties will lead to automatic availability of rights for all.

Conclusion:
Thus we find that Gandhian non-violent ideal state would rest on principle of decentralisation, socialism, trusteeship, varna-system, bread labour and individual freedom with social restraints. It will be an ideal state where police will consist of non-violent soldiers and where prisons will be centres of reformation. It will be a federation of self-governing satyagrahi village communities.

No doubt, Gandhi himself knew that this ‘ideal state’ will always remain an ideal unrealised and unrealisable. He said, ‘But the ideal is never fully realised in life.” The ideal of‘Ram Rajya’ or non-violent state is unrealisable because of human imperfection. But it still shows the direction of our destination and the efforts to this direction must not cease.
Dr. Majumdar writes, “The supreme achievement of Mahatma Gandhi in the field of political thought has been the substitution of the ideal of legal state by that of moral state. He has placed before the world the idea of replacing force and violence by the technique of persuasion through truth and non-violence.”

Question 4.
Write a note on Gandhiji’s views about Ahimsa.
Or
Write down Gandhiji’s views about Non-Violence.
Answer:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa as a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire.

Cowardice is worse than violence A coward is less than man. He does not deserve to be a member of society of men and women. Non-violence is no negative force. It is a force which is more positive than electricity and more powerful than ether The highest violence can be met by the highest non-violence.” However, Gandhiji recognised that absolute Ahimsa being a perfect stage is the attribute of God alone. Non-violence is an effort to abandon the violence that is inevitable in life. The religion of Ahimsa consists in allowing others the maximum of inconvenience to us, even at the risk of life.

Requisites for Ahimsa. According to Gandhiji following are the main requisites of Ahimsa :
1. Truth:
Truth is the fundamental basis of Non-violence. According to Gandhiji not only God is truth but truth is also God. Non-violence is the natural consequence of truth. Gandhiji says that he had a great regard for truth from his childhood. He thinks that wherever there is violence, untruth will creep in. Gandhiji says that truth and Non-violence are like the two sides of an unstamped coin.

2. Love:
Love is the basic requisite for Ahimsa Gandhiji says , “It is no Non-violence if we merely love those that love us. It is Non-violence only when we love those that hate us.”

3. Inner Purity: Inner purity is very essential for a true Satyagrahi. A Satyagrahi must have self-discipline, selfless civility etc.

4. Fearlessness:
Fearlessness is equally important as inner-purity, love and truth. The Satyagrahi must, therefore, be open and fearless, prepared cheerfully to suffer the consequences of his resistance and disobedience to what he considers as unjust and unlawful authority.

5. Fast:
Fast is an internal part of Non-violence. According to Gandhiji, fast should be in the nature of prayer or purity and strength and power from God.

6. Non-Possession: Gandhiji lays stress on non-possession.

7. Perseverance: Perseverance is another essential requisite of Ahimsa.

Relevance of Non-violence:
It is said that Gandhiji’s idea that injustice can be removed through truth, Non-violence and purity of means is too idealistic to be put into practice. But those who make this criticism forget that by these means Gandhiji achieved a great measure of success in the movements he led in South Africa and in India. Gandhiji did not believe that the practice of Non-violence in the political field was beyond the capacity of man. He says.

“The first condition of Non-violence is justice all round in every department of life. Perhaps, it is too much to expect of human nature Non-violence has no cause for fear. The votary of Ahimsa has only one fear, that is of God.” If violence, war and crooked diplomacy are to be avoided, Gandhiji’s way seems to be the only way. If nations do not adopt Gandhiji’s method of Non-violence to remove injustice or resolve international disputes, there is no escape from hate, violence and war.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Who was Mahatma Gandhi?
Answer:
Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi was born at Porbandar (Gujarat) on October 2, 1869. He went to England for higher studies in his 18th year. In 1891 Gandhiji returned to India as a full-fledged barrister. He entered politics just by chance and continued to dominate India National Movement from 1919 to 1947 and this period is called ‘Gandhi Era. He was a philosopher, a reformer and a great teacher. He is remembered as the Father of the Nation.

Question 2.
Explain in detail about Mahatma Gandhi’s views on Non-violence.
Or
Write down Gandhi’s views on Non-violence.
Answer:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him, Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire.” However, Gandhiji recognised that absolute Ahimsa being a perfect stage is the attribute of God alone. Non-violence is an’effort to abandon the violence that is inevitable in life. The religion of Ahimsa consists in allowing others the maximum of inconvenience to us, even at the risk of life.

According to Gandhiji, “Truth, love, fasting, inner purity, true devotion, selflessness etc. are the bases of non-violence. Gandhiji regards non-violence as an instrument or means to discover the truth.” In the words of Gandhiji, “Truth is my religion, and non-violence is its instrument.”

Question 3.
By which of the great persons Gandhiji was influenced?
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by the following great persons :

• John Ruskin: John Ruskin’s ‘Unto the Last’ had a great influence on Gandhiji. Gandhiji learnt three lessons from this book.
• Tolstoy: Tolstoy’s famous book ‘Kingdom of God is Within you’ left an enormous influence on Gandhiji. This book made him believer of Ahimsa.
• Gopal Krishan Gokhale: Mahatma Gandhi considered Gopal Krishan Gokhale as his ‘political guru’ and his liberal views had considerable influence on him.
• Henry David Thoreau also influenced Gandhiji.

Question 4.
Write down the names of Religious books which influenced Gandhiji’s life.
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by the following religious books :
1. Bhagwad Gita:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by Bhagwad Gita. He learnt from the Gita that a man should do his duty regardless of the results or rewards.

2. Bible:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the Bible. The whole life he remembered these statements-‘Overcome evil by good’, ‘Love your enemy’, etc.

3. Influence of Koran: Gandhiji was also influenced by The Koran.

Question 5.
Express your views about Gandhiji’s outlook on religion and politics.
Or
Describe the basic views of Gandhiji on the relationship of politics and religion.
Answer:
Gandhiji’s political ideas were greatly influenced by religion. He was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. They subserve religion. Politics bereft of religion is a death trap because it kills the soul. Gandhiji was fully convinced that no civilization can endure for a long time unless it has adopted the higher values of life which are essentially spiritual in character. Gandhiji was a devotee of God. He had an unswerving and undying faith in God. Gandhiji said that all the religions are equal.

Question 6.
Mention four principles of Gandhism.
Answer:
1. Gandhism is based on Religion:
Gandhiji was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. Religion teaches a lesson of truth, non-violence and love.

2. Faith in Truth: Gandhiji used to say, ‘God is Truth and Truth is God.’ The search of truth is the search of God.

3. State is means and individual is an end.

4. Non-violence and Satyagraha:
Non-violence and satyagraha are the main principles of Gandhiji. Gandhiji called Ahimsa a spiritual or divine power. Satyagraha is the heart and soul of Gandhism. Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth.

Question 7.
What does Gandhiji mean by ‘Satyagraha’? Write the names of methods for Satyagraha.
Answer:
Satyagraha:
The idea and practice of Satyagraha constitutes the heart and the soul of Gandhism and is Gandhiji’s unique and distinctive contribution. Gandhiji defines Satyagraha as the soul force. Literally Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth. It is the vindication of truth, not by the infliction of suffering on the opponent but by self-suffering. Satyagraha is not passive resistance but it is a moral weapon based on superiority of our soul force over physical force. It is a weapon of the strongest and the bravest. Non-cooperation, hartals and strikes, picketing, social boycott, hunger strike, civil disobedience, hijrat etc. are forms of Satyagraha.

Methods for Satyagraha:
According to Gandhiji, the different forms of Satyagraha are non-co-operation, strike, boycott, picketing, civil disobedience, hijrat or migration and fasting.
1. Non-co-operation:
Gandhiji pointed out that oppression and exploitation become feasible only by the co-operation of the oppressed or the people. If the people refuse to co-operate with the government or unjust system, the latter could not function and was bound to come to an end. With complete and non-violent non-co-operation every power could be bent. Non-co-operation takes three different forms, namely, stoppage of work, boycott and picketing.

2. Strike:
This is another form of Satyagraha. To Gandhiji, strike was voluntary, purificatory suffering undertaken to convert the erring opponent. He did not believe in the theory of class-war.

3. Civil Disobedience:
This was to be resorted to when agreements, negotiations, petitions and even non-co-operation prove ineffective. Civil disobedience is thus the logical conclusion, the last stage, the most drastic form of non-co-operation.

4. Fasting: Fasting is also an important method of Satyagraha.

Question 8.
Write down the methods of Satyagraha given by Gandhiji.
Answer:
According to Gandhiji, the different forms of Satyagraha are non-co-operation, strike, boycott, picketing, civil disobedience, hijrat or migration and fasting.
1. Non-co-operation:
Gandhiji pointed out that oppression and exploitation become feasible only by the co-operation of the oppressed or the people. If the people refuse to co-operate with the government or unjust system, the latter could not function and was bound to come to an end. With complete and non-violent non-co-operation every power could be bent. Non-co-operation takes three different forms, namely, stoppage of work, boycott and picketing.

2. Strike:
This is another form of Satyagraha. To Gandhiji, strike was voluntary, purificatory suffering undertaken to convert the erring opponent. He did not believe in the theory of class-war.

3. Civil Disobedience:
This was to be resorted to when agreements, negotiations, petitions and even non-co-operation prove ineffective. Civil disobedience is thus the logical conclusion, the last stage, the most drastic form of non-co-operation.

4. Fasting: Fasting is also an important method of Satyagraha.

Question 9.
Explain Gandhiji’s views about state.
Answer:
Gandhiji was opposed to the state on ethical, historical and economic grounds. The compulsive nature of the state authority takes away the moral value of the individual. He said that the state commands and whatever is commanded can have no moral value. Individual action can be moral only if it is voluntary. According to Gandhiji,

“The state represents violence in concentrated and organised form. The individual has a soul but the state is a soulless machine. It can never be weaned from violence to which it owes its very existence.” Gandhiji was thus opposed to the activities of the state. He wanted a stateless democratic state where social life was self-regulated.

Question 10.
Describe Gandhiji’s Trusteeship System. (P.B. Sample Paper. 2019)
Answer:
Gandhiji advocates a new principle which is technically known as his concept of trusteeship. It means that he wants that the moneyed people should regard their properties, may be land or industry, as a trust to be used for the welfare of the people. He wanted that the propertied men should regard themselves as trustees of the people. He wanted to introduce this principle of trusteeship on the basis of persuasion of the party concerned and not through coercion. He once said, “I would not dispose moneyed people by force but would invite their co-operation in the process of conversion to state ownership.”

Question 11.
What does ‘Hizrat’ mean according to Gandhiji?
Or
According to Gandhiji, what does ‘Hijrat’ mean?
Answer:
Hijrat is one form of Satyagraha. The word ‘Hijrat’ was first used when Prophet Mohammad, the founder of Islam, migrated from Mecca to Medina. Hijrat means voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. Gandhiji favoured Hijrat when people can’t live in their homes or homelands without loss of self¬respect and when they can’t resist oppression non-violently. He recommended this method to the peasants of Bardoli in 1928 and in 1939, to the people of Junagarh, Vithalgarh and Limbidi.

Question 12.
Describe the concept of ‘Ideal State’ of Mahatma Gandhi.
Answer:
Gandhiji considered the present state as a necessary immoral institution. Gandhiji was not in favour of present state and in place of it he wanted to establish an ideal state. Following are the main characteristics of the Ideal State of Gandhiji:
1. Democratic System:
Gandhiji supported democratic form of government and called it an ideal type of government for his ideal state.

2. Secular State:
In ideal state nobody will be discriminated against on the bases of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. He favoured the idea of secular state.

3. Panchayati Raj:
Gandhiji believed in decentralization of authority and he advocated the establishment of Panchayati Raj. Gandhiji was in favour of giving maximum powers to the Panchayats.

4. Gandhian ideal state will be a spiritualised democratic state.

Question 13.
Why is Gandhiji called the Father of the Nation?
Answer:
Gandhiji was a man of high spirits. He was famous not only in India but also all over the world. He played a very important role in National Movement. He uprooted the British rule from India without any bloodshed. India got freedom under his leadership. Gandhiji dedicated his life for Indian people. Even after the independence of India he accepted no post. Gandhiji presented the example of sacrifice and dedication never seen in the history of the world. He has rightly been called the Father of the Nation.

Question 14.
Write Gandhiji’s view about Democracy.
Answer:
Gandhism supported the democratic system of government and called it an ideal type of government. He had a deep faith in democracy. He wanted to establish social and economic equality in society. Gandhiji wanted the government to be elected by the people but at the same time he wanted that only those persons should have the right to vote who earn their bread by their own labour. He was of the opinion that fundamental rights should be granted to all.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
What do you know about Mahatma Gandhi?
Answer:
Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi was born at Porbandar (Gujarat) on October 2,1869. He entered politics just by chance and continued to dominate Indian National Movement from 1919 to 1947 and this period is called ‘Gandhi Era.

Question 2.
Write down Gandhiji’s view about non-violence.
Answer:
Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence. Gandhiji defines non-violence as avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed. To him, Ahimsa was the highest religion. Gandhiji called Ahimsa a spiritual or divine power. “Cowardice and Ahimsa do not go together any more than water and fire.”

Question 3.
By which of the great persons Gandhiji was influenced?
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by following great persons:
1. John Ruskin:
John Ruskin’s ‘Unto the Last’ had a great influence on Gandhiji. Gandhiji learnt three lessons from this book.

2. Gopal Krishan Gokhale:
Mahatma Gandhi considered Gopal Krishan Gokhale as his ‘political guru’ and his liberal views had considerable influence on him.

Question 4.
Write down the names of any two religious books which influenced Gandhiji’s life.
Answer:
Gandhiji was influenced by following religious books:
1. Bhagwad Gita:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by Bhagwad Gita. He learnt from the Gita that a man should do his duty regardless of the results or rewards.

2. Bible:
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the Bible. The whole life he remembered these statements-‘Overcome evil by good’, ‘Love your enemy’, etc.

Question 5.
Write about factors that influenced the life of Gandhiji.
Answer:
1. The Gita had a great influence on the life of Gandhiji. Gandhi was predominantly a man of action. The Gita made him one. He was a Karma Yogi.

2. Jainism had perceptibly coloured Gandhiji’s thoughts and shaped his actions.

3. Buddhist influence was also great.

Question 6.
Describe the basic views of Gandhiji on the relationship of politics and religion.
Answer:
Gandhiji’s political ideas were greatly influenced by religion. He was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. They subserve religion. Politics bereft of religion is a death trap because it kills the soul. Gandhiji was fully convinced that no civilization can endure for a long time unless it has adopted the higher values of life which are essentially spiritual in character.

Question 7.
Write down any two principles of Gandhism.
Answer:

• Gandhism is based on Religion: Gandhiji was of the opinion that there is no politics devoid of religion. Religion teaches a lesson of truth, non-violence and love.
• Faith in Truth: Gandhiji used to say, ‘God is truth and truth is God.’ The search of truth is the search of God.

Question 8.
Describe Gandhiji’s concepts of Satyagraha.
Answer:
Gandhiji defines Satyagraha as the soul force. Literally Satyagraha means holding on to truth or insistence on truth. It is the vindication of truth, not by the infliction of suffering on the opponent but by self-suffering. Satyagraha is not passive resistance but it is a moral weapon based on superiority of our soul force over physical force. It is a weapon of the strongest and the bravest.

Question 9.
Explain briefly any two techniques of Satyagraha enunciated by Gandhi.
Answer:
1. Non-co-operation:
Gandhiji pointed out that oppression and exploitation become non-feasible only by the non-co-operation of the oppressed people.

2. Strike:
This is another form of Satyagraha. To Gandhiji, strike was voluntary, purificatory suffering undertaken to convert the erring opponent. He did not believe in the theory of class-war.

Question 10.
Write Gandhiji’s views about ends and meAnswer:
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi believed and advocated that our means must be consistent with our ends. It is not enough that the ends we follow should be moral and good. It is equally important that the means we use for their achievement should also be good and moral. According to Gandhiji, there is no wall of separation between means and ends. We should not only take care of ends but also take care of the meAnswer:

Question 11.
Discuss Gandhiji’s views about state.
Answer:
Gandhiji was opposed to the state on ethical, historical and economic grounds. The compulsive nature of the state authority takes away the moral value of the individual. He said that the state commands and whatever is commanded can have no moral value. Individual action can be moral only if it is voluntary. Gandhiji was thus opposed to the activities of the state. He wanted a stateless democratic state where social life was self-regulated.

Question 12.
What is Trusteeship system?
Answer:
Gandhiji advocates a new principle which is technically known as his concept of trusteeship. It means that he wants that the moneyed people should regard their properties, may be land or industry, as a trust to be used for the welfare of the people.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Hijrat?
Answer:
Hijrat means voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. Gandhiji favoured Hijrat when people can’t live in their homes or homelands without loss of self-respect and when they can’t resist oppression non-violently.

Question 14.
Mention the two features of Gandhiji’s Ideal State.
Answer:

• Democratic System: Gandhiji supported democratic form of government and called it an ideal type of government for his ideal state.
• Secular State: In ideal state nobody will be discriminated against on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. He favoured the idea of secular state.

Question 15.
Why is Gandhiji called the Father of the Nation?
Answer:
Gandhiji played a very important role in National Movement. He uprooted the British rule from India without any bloodshed. India got freedom under his leadership. Gandhiji dedicated his life for Indian people. Even after the independence of India he accepted no post. He has rightly been called the Father of the Nation.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Mention full name of Gandhiji.
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi’s full name is Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi.

Question 2.
When was Mahatma Gandhi born?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi was born on 2nd October 1869.

Question 3.
Where was Gandhiji born?
Answer:
Gandhiji was bom at Porbunder in Kathiawar.

Question 4.
By whom was Gandhiji influenced?
Answer:
Gandhiji was deeply influenced by the Gita, Buddhism, Jainism and the Bible. Among the scholars, he was influenced by John Ruskin,
Henry David Thoreau and Tolstoy.

Question 5.
Write down the nature of present state according to Gandhiji.
Answer:
Gandhiji considered the present state to be based on force and violence. He supported that it should be ended.

Question 6.
Write down one feature of Gandhiji’s ideal state.
Answer:
The ideal society or the stateless democracy will be a federation of self- governed and satyagrahi villages.

Question 7.
Who gave the title ‘Mahatma’ to Gandhiji?
Answer:
Rabindranath Tagore had first of all called Gandhiji as Mahatma. After this, Gandhiji was called as Mahatma Gandhi.

Question 8.
What did Gandhiji mean by Civil Disobedience?
Answer:
Civil disobedience means the breach of immoral statutory enactment. It included even non-payment of taxes.

Question 9.
What did Gandhiji mean by Hijrat?
Answer:
Hijrat implies voluntary exile from the permanent place of residence. It means that a person who does not have power to become a Satyagrahi, should leave the place.

Question 10.
Write two Religious Books which influenced the life of Mahatma Gandhiji.
Answer:
1. Bhagwad Gita
2. Bible

Question 11.
Who called Mahatma Gandhiji as ‘Father of Nation’?
Answer:
Subhash Chander Bose.

Question 12.
Write two methods of Satyagraha of Mahatma Gandhiji.
Answer:
1. Non-Cooperation
2. Civil Disobedience.

Fill in The Blanks

1. …………… was Gandhi’s political teacher.
Answer:
Sh. Gopal Krishan Gokhle

2. Gandhiji regards state as a means and individual as an …………… .
Answer:
end

3. Gandhiji believed in the decentralization of …………… .
Answer:
authority

4. Gandhiji considered the state as an organisation of …………… and …………… .
Answer:
violence, force

5. According to Gandhiji, “It is impossible for one to be internationalist without being a …………… .
Answer:
nationalist.

True Or False Statement

1. Gandhism is based on religion.
Answer:
True

2. Gandhiji was a great worshipper of non-violence.
Answer:
True

3. Gandhiji gives no importance to duties.
Answer:
False.

4. Gandhiji defined Satyagraha as the soul force.
Answer:
True

5. Gandhiji said the state should perform maximum function.
Answer:
False.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Which of the following influenced the life of Gandhiji?
(a) Bhagwad Gita
(b) John Ruskin
(c) Jainism
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 2.
Which of the following is basic principle of Gandhism?
(a) Faith in Non-violence
(b) Satyagraha
(c) Faith in Truth
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 3.
Which of the following is not a technique of Satyagraha?
(a) Strike
(b) Non-Cooperation
(c) Violence and War
(d) Civil disobedience.
Answer:
(c) Violence and War

Question 4.
Who said, “We should not only take care of ends but also take care of the means.”?
(a) Gandhiji
(b) Machiavelli
(c) Hobbes
(d) Karl Marx.
Answer:
(a) Gandhiji

Question 5.
Which of the following was a great worshipper of non-violence?
(a) Machiavelli
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Gandhiji
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(c) Gandhiji

Question 6.
‘My Experiments with Truth’ is written by:
(a) Aristotle
(b) Gandhiji
(c) J.S. Mill
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(b) Gandhiji

Question 7.
Who said, “God is Truth and Truth is God.”?
(a) Karl Marx
(b) Gandhiji
(c) Machiavelli
(d) Dr. Ambedkar.
Answer:
(b) Gandhiji

Question 8.
According to whom means and ends are inseparable and should be equally true?
(a) Machiavelli
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Gandhiji
(d) Lenin.
Answer:
(c) Gandhiji

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Hindi Book Solutions Chapter 17 अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग़ Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Hindi Chapter 17 अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग़

Hindi Guide for Class 12 PSEB अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग़ Textbook Questions and Answers

(क) लगभग 60 शब्दों में उत्तर दें:

प्रश्न 1.
जलियांवाले बाग में सभा का आयोजन किस उद्देश्य से किया गया ?
उत्तर:
रविवार का दिन था, वैशाखी का त्योहार था। 13 अप्रैल, सन् 1919 की संध्या के साढ़े चार बजे जलियांवाले बाग में एक विशाल जनसभा का आयोजन हुआ था। उस समय शहर की जो बुरी स्थिति थी उस पर विचार करने के उद्देश्य से सभा का आयोजन हुआ था। लोग चाहते थे कि शांति स्थापना के साधनों की खोज की जाए। सब लोग बहुत गम्भीर थे। वे किसी प्रकार की शरारत करना नहीं चाहते थे।

प्रश्न 2.
ब्रिटिश फौज के बाग में प्रवेश का चित्रात्मक वर्णन करो।
उत्तर:
जलियांवाले बाग की विशाल जनसभा अभी शुरू भी नहीं होने पाई थी कि कुछ दूरी पर घुड़सवार पुलिस, उसके पीछे फौजी गाड़ी में बैठा जनरल डायर, उसके पीछे मशीनगनें, तोप ले जाने वाली गाड़ियाँ और फिर मार्च करती हुई फौजें-सब चले जा रहे थे। सैनिकों के बूटों की आवाज़ गूंज रही थी। हाल्ट’ का आदेश मिलने पर कानों को फाड़ने वाला शब्द हुआ। सैनिकों ने मोर्चा सम्भाला और घुटने झुकाकर बन्दूकों में कारतूस भरने लगे।

प्रश्न 3.
जलियांवाले बाग में गोलियों की बौछार से बचने के लिए लोगों ने क्या किया ?
उत्तर:
जलियांवाले बाग के भीषण नरसंहार में सैनिकों की गोलियों से बचने के लिए लगभग बारह व्यक्ति एक वृक्ष के पीछे जा छिपे थे। सैनिकों ने उन्हें मार गिराया। कुछ लोग बाग़ की दीवारों पर चढ़ने की कोशिश कर रहे थे। लोग लाशों पर पैर रखकर दीवार को फाँद रहे थे। बाग में एक कुआँ था। घबरा कर लोग उसमें कूद पड़े। लोग कूदते गए, उसमें गिरते, कुचले जाते और मर जाते।

(ख) लगभग 150 शब्दों में उत्तर दें:

प्रश्न 4.
जलियांवाला बाग में हुआ नरसंहार एक अमानवीय घटना थी। स्पष्ट करें।
उत्तर:
रविवार का दिन, वैशाखी का त्योहार, 13 अप्रैल, सन् 1919 समय संध्या के साढ़े चार बजे जलियांवाला बाग में एक विशाल जनसभा का आयोजन किया गया था। यह जनसभा ब्रिटिश सरकार द्वारा भारत की जनता पर किये जा रहे अत्याचारों के विरोध करने के लिए बुलाई गई थी। जनसभा अभी शुरू भी नहीं हुई थी कि जनरल डायर मशीनगनों और तोपों से लैस फौज को लेकर वहाँ पहुँच गया और अचानक निहत्थे और शान्त लोगों पर गोलियाँ बरसाने लगा। क्षण भर में वहाँ लाशों के ढेर लग गए। प्राण रक्षा के लिए लोग इधर-उधर भागने लगे।

कोई वृक्ष की आड़ में छिप गए, कुछ दीवारें फाँदने का प्रयास करने लगे। बहुत-से लोग जलियांवाला बाग में स्थित एक कुएँ में घबरा कर छलाँगें मारने लगे। सारा सभास्थल घायलों की चीखों पुकार से भर उठा था। गोलियाँ चलनी बन्द होते ही और अन्धेरा उतरते ही लोग बाग के आँगन में आकर अपने रिश्तेदारों और मित्रों की तलाश करने लगे। ऐसा दृश्य पहले कभी न देखा गया था। इस नरसंहार की अमानवीय घटना ने आजादी की लड़ाई को और भी तेज़ कर दिया और आखिरकार अंग्रेज़ों को भारत छोड़कर जाना ही पड़ा।

प्रश्न 5.
लेखक ने जलियांवाले बाग में घायल हुए लोगों की तथा मृत लोगों के परिजनों की मनोदशा का मार्मिक चित्रण किया है। स्पष्ट करें।
उत्तर:
जलियांवाले बाग में जब जनरल डायर के आदेश से सैनिकों ने अन्धाधुंध गोलियां बरसानी शुरू कर दी तो क्षण भर में हताहतों की चीख-पुकार, लहूलुहान कपड़े, लाशों से पटती धरती, प्राण रक्षा के लिए भागते भयाक्रांत नागरिक। तभी बारह वर्ष का एक छोटा-सा बालक गोली लगने पर नीचे आ गिरा। फिर दूसरे छज्जे पर बैठा एक बालक और गिरा। एक वृक्ष के पीछे लगभग 12 व्यक्ति जा छिपे थे। सैनिकों ने एक-एक करके उन सबको मार डाला। घायलों की चीख पुकार से कान फट रहे थे। लोग प्राण बचाने के लिए दीवारों पर चढ़ने की कोशिश कर रहे थे।

दोनों ओर लाशों के ढेर थे। बहुत-से लोग भीड़ में कुचले गए थे। जलियांवाले बाग में एक कुआँ था। घबरा कर लोग उसमें कूद पड़े। कूदने वालों का तांता लग गया। अन्धेरा उतरते ही लोग डरते-काँपते घटनास्थल पर अपने रिश्तेदारों और मित्रों की तलाश में आने लगे। एक सिक्ख युवक, जिसकी आंतें बाहर बिखरी थीं। वह चिल्ला-चिल्ला कर कह रहा था ‘गुरु के नाम पर मुझे मार डालो।’ एक हिन्दू युवक रोता हुआ अपने भाई की लाश पीठ पर लादे जा रहा था। एक औरत अपने पति की लाश को सारी रात अपनी गोद में लेकर पत्थर की मूर्ति बनी वहाँ बैठी रही।

(ग) सप्रसंग व्याख्या करें:

1. ऊपर उड़ता हुआ एक हवाई जहाज़….. पाश्व सत्ता का प्रतीक, नीचे मैं-चारों ओर से मंज़िलों, इमारतों से घिरा हुआ। बाहर निकलने के एकमात्र मार्ग पर फौजी पहरा और ऊपर चबूतरे से गोली बरसाती फौज। काश, मैं गोलियों और जनता के बीच अड़ जाता। पर मैं तो जड़ बन कर रह गया था।
उत्तर:
प्रसंग:
प्रस्तुत गद्यांश श्री विष्णु प्रभाकर द्वारा आत्मकथा शैली में लिखे गए निबन्ध ‘अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियांवाला बाग’ में से लिया गया है। प्रस्तुत पंक्तियों में जलियांवाला बाग़ सन् 1919 में हुए नरसंहार की घटना का वर्णन कर रहा है।

व्याख्या:
जलियांवाला बाग़ अपने आँगन में हुए नरसंहार की घटना का उल्लेख करते हुए कहता है कि जब जनरल डायर के आदेश पर सैनिक निहत्थे व शान्त लोगों पर गोलियाँ बरसा रहे थे उस समय अंग्रेज़ी हकूमत की पाशविकता का प्रतीक हवाई जहाज़ ऊपर आसमान में उड़ रहा था और नीचे मैं बहुमंजिली इमारतों से घिरा हुआ। मेरे आँगन से बाहर निकलने का एकमात्र मार्ग था उस पर भी फौजी पहरा लगा हुआ था अर्थात् कोई भी व्यक्ति उस रास्ते से गोलीबारी से बचने के लिए बाहर नहीं निकल सकता था और मेरे ऊपर जो चबूतरे थे वहाँ से फौजी लोग गोलियाँ बरसा रहे थे। जलियांवाला बाग सोचता है कि काश, उस समय वह गोलियों और जनता के बीच आकर जनता को बचा पाते किन्तु मैं तो उस भयानक दृश्य को देखकर पहले ही जड़ हो चुका था।

विशेष:

1. जलियाँवाला बाग में हुए नरसंहार का यथार्थ चित्रण किया गया है।
2. भाषा सहज, भावपूर्ण और शैली आत्मकथात्मक है।

2. मरते हुए व्यक्तियों की सिसकियाँ और आहें बता रही थीं किं जैसे चारों ओर मौत का साम्राज्य है। मेरा सारा शरीर गोलियों से छलनी हो चुका था, लेकिन मैं आसानी से मरने वाला नहीं था। काश, यदि मर जाता तो वह दृश्य तो नहीं देख पाता।
उत्तर:
प्रसंग-प्रस्तुत गद्यांश श्री विष्णु प्रभाकर द्वारा आत्मकथा शैली में लिखे गए निबन्ध ‘अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियांवाला बाग’ में से लिया गया है। प्रस्तुत पंक्तियों में जलियांवाला बाग सन् 1919 में हुई नरसंहार की घटना का वर्णन करते हुए अपने ऊपर होने वाले प्रभाव का वर्णन कर रहा है।

व्याख्या:
जलियांवाला बाग नरसंहार की घटना के बाद की स्थिति का वर्णन करते हुए कहता है कि इस भीषण नरसंहार में मारे जाने वाले व्यक्तियों की सिसकियाँ और आहों से यह पता चल रहा था कि यहाँ मौत का चारों ओर साम्राज्य रहा है। उस समय मेरे सारे शरीर को गोलियों से छलनी कर दिया गया। किन्तु मैं आसानी से मरने वाला नहीं था। काश, यदि मर जाता तो यह भयावह दृश्य तो न देखता।

विशेष:

1. लेखक की मानसिक पीड़ा और हताशा शब्दों के माध्यम से स्पष्ट दिखाई देती है।
2. भावात्मक शैली, तत्सम तद्भव शब्दावली और स्वाभाविकता व्यक्त हुई है।

PSEB 12th Class Hindi Guide अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग़ Additional Questions and Answers

अति लघूत्तरात्मक प्रश्न

प्रश्न 1.
‘अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग’ पाठ के रचयिता का नाम लिखिए।
उत्तर:
विष्णु प्रभाकर।

प्रश्न 2.
श्री विष्णु प्रभाकर का जन्म कब और कहाँ हुआ था?
उत्तर:
उनका जन्म सन् 1912 ई० में मुजफ्फर नगर के एक गाँव में हुआ था।

प्रश्न 3.
श्री विष्णु प्रभाकर ने स्नातक स्तर की शिक्षा किस विश्वविद्यालय से प्राप्त की थी?
उत्तर:
पंजाब विश्वविद्यालय से।

प्रश्न 4.
श्री विष्णु प्रभाकर ने किसका संपादन कार्य किया था ?
उत्तर:
पत्र-पत्रिकाओं का।

प्रश्न 5.
श्री प्रभाकर पर किस व्यक्ति का सबसे अधिक प्रभाव पड़ा था?
उत्तर:
महात्मा गांधी का।

प्रश्न 6.
किस धार्मिक संस्था से विष्णु प्रभाकर बहुत प्रभावित हुए थे?
उत्तर:
आर्य समाज से।

प्रश्न 7.
विष्णु प्रभाकर की किन्हीं दो रचनाओं के नाम लिखिए।
उत्तर:
अवारा मसीहा, जाने-अनजाने।

प्रश्न 8.
आप के पाठ्यक्रम में श्री विष्णु प्रभाकर की कौन-सी रचना संकलित है?
उत्तर:
अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग’।

प्रश्न 9.
‘अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग’ किस साहित्यिक विधा से संबंधित रचना है?
उत्तर:
निबंध विधा।

प्रश्न 10.
‘अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग’ किस शैली में रचित है?
उत्तर:
आत्म कथात्मक।

प्रश्न 11.
जलियाँवाला बाग की घटना किस त्योहार के दिन घटित हुई थी?
उत्तर:
वैशाखी के दिन (13 अप्रैल, सन् 1919)।

प्रश्न 12.
निबंध के अनुसार किसका चित्र कुर्सी पर रखा हुआ था?
उत्तर:
डॉ० किचलू का।

प्रश्न 13.
देशव्यापी हड़ताल किसके आह्वान पर और क्यों की गई थी?
उत्तर:
महात्मा गांधी के आह्वान पर रोल्ट एक्ट के विरोध में।

प्रश्न 14.
जलियाँवाला बाग में कौन-सा जनरल फौज़ लेकर आया था?
उत्तर:
जनरल डायर।

प्रश्न 15.
लोग गोलियों से बचने के लिए कहाँ कूद गए थे?
उत्तर:
कुएं में।

प्रश्न 16.
जलियाँवाला बाग में से बाहर निकलने के कितने रास्ते थे ?
उत्तर:
केवल एक।

वाक्य पूरे कीजिए

प्रश्न 17.
ऊपर उड़ता हुआ एक हवाई जहाज……….
उत्तर:
पाश्व सत्ता का प्रतीक।

प्रश्न 18.
मेरा सारा शरीर गोलियों से………………..
उत्तर:
छलनी हो चुका था।

प्रश्न 19.
………………………..तो वह दृश्य तो नहीं देख पाता।
उत्तर:
काश, यदि मर जाता तो वह दृश्य तो नहीं देख पाता।

प्रश्न 20.
“गुरु के नाम पर…………………।”
उत्तर:
गुरु के नाम पर मुझे मार डालो।

हाँ-नहीं में उत्तर दीजिए

प्रश्न 21.
जनरल डायर के आदेश से सैनिकों ने अंधाधुध गोलियाँ बरसानी शुरू कर दी।
उत्तर:
हाँ।

प्रश्न 22.
चारों ओर मौत का साम्राज्य नहीं था।
उत्तर:
नहीं।

प्रश्न 23.
दूसरे छज्जे पर बैठा एक बालक और गिरा।
उत्तर:
हाँ।

प्रश्न 24.
वृक्ष के पीछे लगभग 12 व्यक्ति जा छिपे थे।
उत्तर:
हाँ।

बहुविकल्पीय प्रश्नोत्तर

1. विष्णु प्रभाकर पर किसके जीवन दर्शन का प्रभाव पड़ा ?
(क) आर्य समाज का
(ख) महात्मा गांधी का
(ग) आर्य समाज एवं महात्मा गांधी का
(घ) देव का।
उत्तर:
(ग) आर्य समाज एवं महात्मा गांधी का

2. ‘अगर ये बोल पाते’ किस विधा की रचना है ?
(क) आत्मकथात्मक
(ख) विचारात्मक
(ग) व्यंग्यात्मक
(घ) हास्यात्मक।
उत्तर:
(क) आत्मकथात्मक

3. जलियांवाला बाग की घटना कब घटित हुई ?
(क) 13 अप्रैल 1918
(ख) 13 अप्रैल 1919
(ग) 13 अप्रैल 1920
(घ) 13 अप्रैल 19211
उत्तर:
(ख) 13 अप्रैल 1919

4. जलियांवाला बाग के हत्याकांड को करने के लिए किसने गोलियां चलाने का आदेश दिया था ?
(क) जनरल डायर ने
(ख) अंग्रेज़ ने
(ग) डगलस ने
(घ) डबलस ने
उत्तर:
(क) जनरल डायर ने

कठिन शब्दों के अर्थ

स्तब्ध = हैरान। मिसाल = उदाहरण। ऐलान = घोषणा। परिपाटी = सिलसिला, प्रथा, रीति। न भूतो न भविष्यति = जो कभी पहले हुआ न आगे होगा। जुल्म = अत्याचार। हाल्ट = रुको। कर्ण भेदी = कानों को फाड़ने वाले। निनाद = शब्द, ध्वनि। हतप्रभ = जिसकी कांति क्षीण हो गई हो। अप्रत्याशित = अचानक, जिसकी आशा न रही हो। हता हतो = मरने वालों और घायलों। पाशव सत्ता = पशुओं जैसी सत्ता। प्रतीक = चिह्न, नमूना। धराशायी = धरती पर गिरना। छेदना = बींधना। बेतहाशा = बिना सोचे विचारे, बदहवास होकर। क्रंदन = चीख पुकार। मादरे वतन = मातृ भूमि। सरजमी = धरती। वीरांगना = बहादुर स्त्री। लोमहर्षक = रौंगटे खड़े करने वाला, रोमांचकारी। बर्बर = असभ्य। आकांक्षा = इच्छा, कामना।

अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग़ Summary

अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग़ जीवन परिचय

विष्णु प्रभाकर जी का जीवन परिचय लिखिए।

विष्णु प्रभाकर का जन्म जून, सन् 1912 में मुजफ्फर नगर के एक गाँव में हुआ। पंजाब विश्वविद्यालय से बी०ए० करने के बाद आप हरियाणा में सरकारी सेवा में आ गए। नौकरी के साथ-साथ आप साहित्य सृजन में भी संलग्न रहे। आप कई वर्षों तक आकाशवाणी के नाटक विभाग से भी जुड़े रहे। कुछ पत्र-पत्रिकाओं का सम्पादन भी किया। आपके जीवन पर आर्य समाज तथा महात्मा गाँधी के जीवन दर्शन का गहरा प्रभाव है।

रचनाएँ:
प्रभाकर जी ने हिन्दी साहित्य को कहानियाँ, उपन्यास, निबन्ध, नाटक और एकांकी दिये। जाने-अनजाने और आवारा मसीहा इनकी गद्य रचनाएँ हैं।

अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियाँवाला बाग़ निबन्ध का सार

‘अगर ये बोल पाते : जलियांवाला बाग़’ निबन्ध का सार लगभग 150 शब्दों में लिखें।

प्रस्तुत निबन्ध आत्मकथा शैली में लिखा गया है। जलियांवाले बाग अपनी कहानी अपनी जुबानी सुना रहा है।
जलियांवाला बाग कहता है कि रविवार का दिन, वैशाखी का त्योहार 13 अप्रैल, सन् 1919 संध्या के साढ़े चार बजे थे। मेरे आँगन में एक विशाल जनसभा का आयोजन हुआ था। डॉ०, किचलू का चित्र कुर्सी पर रखा था। गाँधी जी ने रोल्ट एक्ट के विरोध में देशव्यापी हड़ताल का आह्वान किया था। अंग्रेजी सरकार ने सभा से एक दिन पहले मार्शल लॉ लागू कर दिया था। सारे नेताओं को गिरफ्तार कर लिया गया था। इस पर भी सभा हुई। सभा अभी शुरू भी नहीं हुई थी कि जनरल डायर फौज को लेकर वहाँ आया और बिना चेतावनी दिये अन्धाधुंध गोलियाँ चला दीं। लोगों ने गोलियों की बौछार से बचने के लिए वृक्षों की आड़ ली। दीवारों पर चढ़ने की कोशिश की।

मेरे आँगन में एक कुआँ था लोग घबरा कर उसी में कूदने लगे। इस नरसंहार में हज़ारों लोग हताहत हुए। इनमें हिन्दू, मुसलमान, सिक्ख सभी थे। गोलियाँ बरसनी थमते ही लोगों ने अपने-अपने परिजनों को तलाशने की कोशिश की। यह भयानक दृश्य देखकर मेरा पत्थर दिल भी चीत्कार कर उठा। इस बर्बर हत्याकांड के कारण ही आज़ादी की लड़ाई तेज़ हुई। मेरे आँगन में होने वाले उस महान् बलिदान की नींव . पर ही स्वाधीनता का महल खड़ा हुआ। मुझे गर्व है कि मेरा देश आज़ाद हुआ। आओ, हम उस बलिदान को याद करते हुए देश की स्वाधीनता की रक्षा करें।

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 1 Political System Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 1 Political System

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Political System. Write main characteristics of Political System.
Or
Describe the words Political and System separately and also write any three features of Political System.
Or
Define Political System and explain its four characteristics.
Answer:
Introduction:
Among the new concepts and trends of political analysis, the concept of political system occupies a pre-eminent place. It has revolutionised modern political science. The behavioural revolution in political science begins and ends with an over-emphasis on the concept of political system. It was Talcott Parsons, a sociologist who by writing his book ‘Social System’ popularised this concept in sociology. In political science this concept is associated with the names of David Easton, Gabriel Almond and several others of their camp. The concept has been borrowed from natural science in social sciences. Before understanding the concept of political system, it is essential to know the meaning of ‘Political’ and ‘System’.

What is Political:
The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. All these interactions involved in the struggle for power are ‘Political’. Any association becomes Political when its rule or decisions are obeyed by its members with the use or threat of physical force. According to Max Weber, “An association should be called political if and in so far as the enforcement of its order is carried out continually within a given territorial area by the application or threat of physical force.” Political includes all these which include power, influence, control or authority to a significant extent.

Meaning of the term ‘System’:
According to Oxford Dictionary, “A system is a complete whole, a set of connected things or parts, organised body of material or immaterial things.”
The word ‘system’ has been used and defined differently by different writers belonging to different disciplines. Ludivin van Bertallanfy describes system as a “set of elements standing in interaction.” Collin Cherry says that a system “is a whole which is compounded of many parts-an ensemble of attitudes.”
According to Gabriel A. Almond a system means a “particular set of properties in interaction A system has three characteristics:
1. comprehensiveness,
2. interdependence and
3. existence of boundaries.”

According to A. Hall and A. Fagen, “System is a set of objects together with relations between the objects and between their attitudes.”

Definitions of a Political System:
There are several definitions of the term ‘Political System.’ Max Weber says that a political system is a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Kaplan and Lasswell consider the shaping and sharing of power as the main concern of political system with the help of threatened or actual use of severe deprivation for non-confirmity. Robert A. Dahl defines political system as “any persistent pattern of human relationships that involves to a significant extent power, rule or authority.”

Gabriel A. Almond expands “political system” to mean “that system of interaction to be found in all independent societies which performs the functions of interaction and adaptation (both internally and vis-a-vis other societies) by means of employment or threat of employment of more or less.” More briefly speaking, the political system is, “the legitimate order maintaining or transforming system within society”.

The use of the phrase “more or less’ by Almond, enables us to include totalitarian systems in which the legitimacy may be in doubt, revolutionary system in which the basics of legitimacy may be in process of change ; and non-western systems in which there may be more than one legitimate system. Physical compulsion distinguishes one political system from another. All inputs into the political system are in some way related to claim for the employment of legitimate compulsion. All the ‘outputs’ are related to the exercise of such legitimate compulsion.

Thus three things emerge out of Almond’s definition of political system:

• That a political system is a concrete whole influencing and in turn influenced by the environments,
• interactions take place not between individuals but between roles adopted by them, and
• the political system is an open system engaged in continuous communication with entities and systems beyond its own boundaries.

Thus all three characteristics of a system are found in Almond’s definition of political system:

• political system is comprehensive in the sense that it includes all the interactions-inputs as well as outputs;
• it is interdependent in the sense that various sub-sets of political systems are so closely associated with each other that a change in one sub-set produces a change in all the sub-sets; and
• there is a boundary or demarcation between one political system and another.

A political system not only includes formal governmental structures; like Executive, Legislative, Judiciary and other administrative agencies, but it includes traditional and informal structures; like kinship, caste, group, anomic groups e.g., demonstrations, violent incidents and murders, etc. So the scope of Political System is very large.

Question 2.
Describe the main characteristics of Political System.
Or
Write down the main components of Political System.
Answer:
According to Almond, a political system has three main properties of comprehensiveness, interdependence and boundaries and it has essential characteristics-Universality-of Political System, Universality of political structure, Universality of political functions, multifunctionality of political structure and culturally mixed character of the political system.

1. Comprehensiveness:
According to Almond, political system includes all the interactions-inputs as well as outputs,-that affect the use of political coercion. In other words, according to Almond, political system is not only concerned with the mere structures based on constitutional and legal foundations as parliaments, courts and bureaucracies or with informal organisations like political parties and pressure groups and means of communications, but it is concerned with all the structures in their political aspects, including undifferentiated structures like kinship and lineage, status and caste groups, religious and cultural bodies, as well as anomic phenomenon like violent riots and street demonstrations.

2. Interdependence:
According to Almond, political system also includes the political aspects of various sub-systems. Interdependence of various sub-systems is one of the most important elements of the political system. For example, the changes in the means of communications have transformed the electoral process, the characteristics of political parties, the legislature and the executive.

3. Existence of Boundaries:
It implies that there are points where the political system ends and other systems begin. The boudaries between society and polity differ from one political system to another. But the boundaries of a political system change from time to time. Besides the three properties of political system, Almond has also mentioned five characteristics of the political system:

(i) Universality of Political Systems:
According to Almond, all political systems whether primitive or modern or whether developing and developed, have political structures, i.e., they have a legitimate pattern of interaction by means of which internal and external order is maintained.

(ii) Universality of Political Structure:
According to Almond, all political systems have same structures that perform same functions though with varying degree of frequency. The articulative, aggregative and communicative functions may be performed diffusely within the society or intermittently through the kinship or lineage structure. An adequate analysis of a political system must locate and characterise all of these functions and not simply those performed by the specialised political structure.

(iii) Universality of Political Functions:
According to Almond, the approach of the student of comparative Politics should not be ‘structure-bound,’ rather it should be ‘function-bound’. According to Almond, every political system must perform the following functions:

(a) Input Functions.
Input category includes:

• Political Socialisation and- Recruitment,
• Interest articulation,
• Interest aggregation, and
• Political communication.

(b) Output Functions.Output category includes:

• Rule-making.
• Rule-application and
• Rule-adjudication.

4. Multifunctionality of Political Structure:
According to Almond, all political structure irrespective of the degree of specialisation in point of time or space, is multifunctional. Multi-functionality of Political Structure means that a political structure performs not one type of functions but many types of functions. For example, courts not only adjudicate, they also legislate. Similarly Legislatures not only legislate but they also perform administrative functions.

5. Culturally Mixed Character of Political Systems:
According to Almond, all political systems are mixed in the cultural sense. No political system is quite modern or western in the same sense as no individual is fully mature or emancipated from the ties and diffuse dependence.

Characteristics of Political System in Dahl’s View
Robert Dahl has mentioned in his book ‘Modern Political Analysis’ eight characteristics of Political system. But before discussing the characteristics Robert Dahl has said, “Remember these similarities are not a part of the definition of a political system. They are regularities-empirical regularities one might say- that one can expect to find in any large political system.”

1. Uneven Control of Political Resources:
According to a report of Dahl, “Control over political resources is distributed unevenly”. A political resource is a means by which one person can influence the behaviour of other persons. Political resources include money, information, food, the threat of force, job, friendship, social standing, the right to make laws, votes, and a great variety of other things. According to Dahl, there are four reasons why control over political resources is unevenly distributed in virtually all societies.

(i) Some specialization, of functions exists in every society:
Because of this specialization, everyone cannot have an equal control over resources. A foreign minister or a secretary of state knows better about the foreign affairs than ordinary citizens, because he (foreign minister) specializes in that sphere.

(ii) Because of inherited difference, people do not have control over resources.

(iii) Citizens differ in their objectives. Some have no interest in politics, others have too much of interest. Not everyone is equally motivated to go into politics, to become a leader, or to acquire the resources that help the leader gain influence over others.

(iv) Finally, some differences in incentives and goals are usually encouraged in societies in order to equip individuals for different specialities. If everyone wanted to be a full-time warrior, who would bear and rear the children? But differences in motivations are likely to lead to differences in resources-for example to greater military powers for warriors than others.

2. The Quest of Political Influence:
In almost every political system there are some members who seek to gain influence over the policies, rules and decisions enforced by the government-i.e. political influence. People seek political influence not necessarily for its own sake, but because control over the government helps them to achieve one or more of their goals. Control over the government is such an obvious and familiar way of furthering one’s goals or values that it is hard to imagine a political system in which no one sought power.

3. Unequal Distribution of Political Influence:
There is an unequal distribution of Political Influence among the adult members of a society. These with more political resources have large capacity to influence than others. The unequal distribution of Political influence is not modern in its origin ; it has always existed in our societies. Uneven control of political resources and the difference in purpose for which these resources are utilised, are a few factors responsible for this unequal distribution of Political Influence. Aristotle distinguished between master and slave, husband and wife.

Rousseau accepted property as the basis of inequality. Marx and Engels also accept almost similar basis. David Truman inl951 said, “Writers of the most diverse Political views and using the most widely variant methods of observation have called attention to the existence in almost all groups of an active minority identified by such condemnatory terms as ‘oligarchy’ and ‘old guard’ or such approving ones as public spirited citizens and civic leaders.” Thus these, with a larger amount of political influence, are known to be the leaders in a Political System.

4. Resolution of Conflicting aims:
The members of a Political System generally have conflicting aims. These aims are, of course, considered by the Govt, yet it does not mean that Government always interferes in these conflicting aims and activities of individual members. State interferes only when the use of power becomes imminent. A Government, for example, interferes in a dispute between the workers and owners of a mill or any other concern, when it endangers the National economy.

5. The Acquisition of Legitimacy:
While solving the conflicts in a Political System, rulers always take care of this thing that the means used for settlement should be based on moral principles and not on fear, violence or any other immoral consideration. Leaders in a Political System always try to establish legitimacy of their actions. This is particularly so in a democratic system.

6. Development of an Ideology:
The rulers in a political system essentially develop an ideology to prove the legitimacy of their acts. This ideology can be socialistic, democratic or any other, but it is not essential that every individual member of the system knows or understands that ideology.

7. Influence of other Political Systems:
Every Political System is influenced by other Political Systems. No Political system in modem age can develop in complete isolation. Each State has to regulate its system on the basis of international law, international treaties, agreements and international institutions.

8. The Inevitability of Change:
All political systems undergo change. From time immemorial political observers have pointed out the mutability of political systems. In the entire history of political institutions, no political system has been immutable. But it is important to note that characteristics of political systems, given by Dahl, are not the theoretical basis of political system. In other words from theory point of view it is not essential that characteristics must be available in every political system. But as far as the political form of political system is concerned almost all these characteristics are available in a political system.

Question 3.
Describe the meaning of ‘Political System’ and also explain its ‘input functions’.
Or
Write input and output functions of Political System.
Answer:
According to Shaw and Pierce, “The study of Politics needs some analytical tool which can help to describe and explain ‘Political’ activity. The term ‘system’ is a useful one for organizing one’s knowledge about many social objects. Employing the concept of system with its accompanying properties, is one way in which the characteristics and boundaries of the ‘Politician’ can be abstracted for study.” In this way after including the concept of ‘System’ in politics by modem political scholars, concept of political system has become a central point of study in political science.

The term ‘Political System’ reflects a new way of looking at political phenomena which was covered in old texts under such terms as ‘government’, ‘nation’ or ‘state’. Political system, however, denotes not only change of nomenclature but something much more. It includes not only new names for old things, but also some new terms to refer to activities and processes which were not formerly recognised as being parts or aspects of politics. The order of terms-state, government, nation-are limited by legal and institutional meanings. They referred to only the formal government institutions such as legislature, executive and judiciary.

But Political System includes not only governmental institutions such as legislature, court and administrative agencies, but all structures in their political aspects. Among these are traditional structures such as kinship ties and caste groupings, anomic phenomena such as assassinations, riots and demonstrations; as well as formal organisations like parties, interest groups and media of communication.”

Functions of Political Systems:
According to Almond, Political Systems perform two types of functions-Input functions and Output functions. Below, we discuss these briefly:
Input Functions:
Input functions are performed by non-governmental sub-systems society, and general environment. Almond has suggested four input functions of a Political System.
1. Political Socialization and Recruitment
2. Interest Articulation
3. Interest Aggregation
4. Political Communication.

1. Political Socialization and Recruitment:
In one’s childhood, one has no interest in politics. A child is generally ignorant about politics, but gradually when he grows up, he starts understanding the political conceptions and then finally he starts playing a role also in the political system. This is the process of socialization.

According to Almond and Powell, ‘Political Socialization is the process through which political cultures are maintained or changed.” So the process of political socialization can be utilised for both bringing a change as well as for maintaining status-quo. It is a continuous process. Political Parties and Pressure Groups, which are the main agencies of political socialization, are involved in making the people conscious about their values and in attracting their attention towards their values. The process of socialization has its special importance in a democratic system.

The process of socialization, in a system, is supplemented by Recruitment. Roles and actors in a system keep on changing. Rulers, officials, leaders all change in a system. New ones replace the older ones. Defining Recruitment, Almond and Powell write, “We use the term Political to refer to the functions by means of which the roles of political systems are filled. ” There can be both generalized or specialized recruitment.

2. Interest Articulation:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call, interest articulation. ” Different individuals and groups present their demands or articulate their interests before those who have the right to make decisions.

It is an important process in the political system, because unless the groups or individuals present their demands before the rulers, no policy can be formulated and their demands cannot be met. If the groups or individuals in a system are not allowed to present their demands or interests, it may lead to violent activities. Interests, in a political system, can be articulated by way of petitions, suggestions, addresses, statements, demonstrations or even violent means. Students and labour groups adopt the techinque of strikes etc. The democratic system provides proper means for interest articulation to the people.

3. Interest Aggregation:
In no political system different laws of the interests of different groups can be created. A common policy is formulated for the interests of almost all the groups. The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation. According to Almond and Powell. “The functions of converting demands into general policy alternatives is called interest aggregation. ” There are two ways to perform this function.

First by co-ordinating the interests of various nature and second by the recruitment of those who have faith in one national policy. An individual wants a particular thing to be done on the basis of his interests. Interest groups aggregate the interests of various sub-groups and make a demand. Political Parties on the basis of various demands made by different groups, prepare a policy. This is a continuous process in a political system.

4. Political Communication:
Political Communication is the most important function of a Political System. It is through this process that other functions are performed. Everybody, whether a citizen or an official, has to depend upon information, because all activities in a system are to be regulated on the basis of information. That is why in a democratic system there is too much of emphasis on the freedom of press, speech and expression, whereas it is crushed or controlled in a totalitarian system. Means of communication have a definite impact on a Political System. Without communication, Interest articulation is not possible.

The freedom and autonomy of the communication system has been recognized in modern developed societies. On the basis of the structure of the communication system, we can compare the political systems with each other. According to Almond and Powell, “The analysis and comparison of the performance of political communication is one of the most interesting and useful means of examining different political systems. ” In a comparative study we look at communication from four angles, namely,

• Homogeneity
• Mobility
• Volume
• Direction.

Output Functions:
The output functions of a Political System are similar to those of the administrative activities of a State. Almond himself has accepted that they are similar to the traditional government functions. But still they should be described not as government functions, but as output functions of a political system. Almond has suggested three main output functions:
1. Rule Making,
2. Rule Application,
3. Rule Adjudication.
Let us know about these briefly.

1. Rule Making:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule-making function is performed by the Legislature and its allied agencies. The use of the term ‘rule-making’ in place of ‘law-making’ has been justified by Almond on the ground that the term ‘law-making’ reflects a particular structure and a definite process, whereas rule-making is a much more diffused process in which all political systems are involved. Almond and Powell believe that constitutionalism demands that, “rules must be made in certain ways and by specific institutions and with certain kinds of limitations.”

2. Rule Application:
The function of the political system is not only to make rules, but also to apply them. If rules are not properly implemented the whole purpose of rule-making is lost and the desired results then cannot be expected. In a political system ‘Rule application’ is the responsibility of bureaucracy. Even the judicial decisions are implemented by the civil servants. Sometime this function is performed by the rule-making department also.

But in a developed political system the two functions are performed by separate departments. According to Almond, “The presence of differentiated and well developed structures for rule application greatly expand the capability of a political system to manipulate its environment. ”

3. Rule Adjudication:
Whenever a rule is created, the fear of its violation is always present. Now, he who violates these rules, must be punished. That is why almost every rule contains in itself the punishment for those, who violate it. But before such a punishment is given to any individual it must be established that he had actually violated the rule of the land. This is the function of courts or the judiciary or in modem terminology, the Rule Adjudication department.

This department peforms another function and that is the interpretation of laws. In an ideal political system this department is kept independent of all controls so that judges work impartially, independently and fearlessly. An analysis of all these functions of a political system presents models, Almond and Coleman have described five such models:

• The Model democracy-Japan, India and Israel.
• The Tutelary democracy-Ghana, Nigeria. In their model Legislature and Judiciary are comparatively weaker than Executive.
• The Modernizing Oligarchy-Myanmar (Burma), Turkey and Sudan. In such a model the democratic constitution remains suspended. Authority is vested in either Bureaucracy or in Armed Forces.
• The Totalitarian Oligarchy-Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. This is called Guardian-Bureaucracy.
• The Traditional Oligarchy-Kuwait, Saudi Arab. Recruitment in this model is on the basis of kinship.

Question 4.
Explain David Easton’s Concept of Political System.
Or
Discuss the functions of Political System with reference to the views of David Easton.
Answer:
General System’s theory is concerned with all types of systems whereas the System’s theory covers only the political system. Oran Young is of the opinion that System Theory is a product of General System Theory. But Spiro believes that System Theory was present before the General Systems Theory came into existence.

System Analysis:
David Easton was the first Political Scientist to adopt the system analysis in Politics, in 1965, in his books, ‘A Framework of Political Analysis’ and ‘A System Analysis of Political Life.’ He gave a new interpretation, which is of great importance for us today.

Meaning of Political System according to Easton:
Political system differs from General Systems. It is ominpresent and is found everywhere, may be that it exists in different forms.

Defining Political System, Easton has said that “Political System is that system of interaction in any society through which binding and authoritative allocations of value are made and implemented.” He has further said that, “the idea of Political System proves to be an appropriate and indeed unavoidable starting point in research. Although, there is often uncertainty about the unity of Political Science as a discipline, most students of Political Science do feel quite instinctively that research into political aspects of life does differ from enquire into any other, sufficiently, so to constitute a separate intellect enterprise.”

Easton’s analysis of Political System is without any boundaries. For him, the scope of Political System is very large. It includes all types of formal and informal actions and interactions, structures and values. Political System is a sub-system of social system and it can, therefore be analysed. It is affected by all other systems and sub-systems. It adopts inputs and produces output.

Inputs and Outputs in a Political System:

Easton has described two types of inputs in a political system:
1. Demand and 2. Support.

Demand:
Easton has explained demand by saying “A demand is an expression of opinion that an authoritative allocation with regard to a particular subject-matter should or should not be made by those responsible for doing so.”
Demand can be of many types, for example, demand for fixed working hours, demand for public security, demand for franchise, demand for information or for sending messages etc. Support can also be of many types, for example, materialistic support like, paying taxes, joining armed forces, financial help during emergency. Similarly, another support can be to obey the laws and help in their execution. Yet, another support can be to use right to vote and to participate in the political activities.

Input Support:
According to Easton, no demand can be satisfied without support, but the related problems are-how much support, and from where and which members of political system? One will get support if others are satisfied by his actions or activities or interests. Every political system will have to get the support of environments, if it is to survive. The support can be in the form of actions which are supportive or it can be to a specific political object.

lt can also be an over all support to the political community, to a particular structure or political authorities, holding power at a given time. He was also of the view that the support could be for all things or for any one of them. But at the same time, it cannot be taken for granted that support once obtained will continue for ever. The support can also increase or decline, according to certain developments. But such a situation will arise only when a political system has failed to deliver the goods.
Easton believed that input in a Political System is like the raw material which when supplemented by support takes the form of outputs.

Outputs of Political System:
Demands and supports are inputs of a political system, but along with inputs, there are also some outputs. A political system might be having excellent public support, it might also have lofty ideals to achieve and the society on the whole might even extend co-operation to it, but it will survive only when it gives its output, namely how far the system has proved to society useful or what has it given to the society. According to Easton, “Outputs not only help to influence events in the broader sense of which the system is a part, but also in doing so they help to determine each succeeding round of inputs that finds its way into the political system.” Outputs are of three types according to Easton, viz.

1. Tax or personal service,
2. Regulated behaviour and
3. Distribution of general services or opportunities

Easton also tried to establish a relationship between the Political System and the Environment. Environment creates demands and the conversion process converts them into decisions or policies. Support originates out of the satisfaction about the decisions taken or policies made. This process continues in a political system till the system bears the strains and stresses in forms of demands. When this situation reaches a critical stage and the strains and stresses become unbearable for a political system, the system collapses.

Following are the main premises of input-output process, as described by David Easton:
1. System,
2. Environment,
3. Response and
4. Feedback.
1. System: System has, already, been defined in the beginning of this part of the chapter.

2. Environment:
Political System is a set of interactions. It converts inputs into outputs. Just as every conversion has the impact of a particular type of
environment, similarly, the conversion of inputs into outputs depends upon political environment. According to Eatson, Political Environment is of two types,
(i) Extra Societal
(ii) Intra Societal.
The Extra Societal environment means international environment which includes groups, cultural and economic systems. The Intra Societal environment includes structural, social and other circumstances which are influential in the society.

3. Response:
Political System allocates values in the society. Environment influences the Political System in this regard and puts all types of strains and stresses on the Political System. The success or failure of a Political System depends upon the reaction of the system about their strains and stresses. These stresses constitute the inputs and only few of these are converted into outputs. How far an environment system faces these inputs, is the response of the Political System. For this purpose, Political System articulates four types of rules:

1. Communicative Rules, which regulate the conversion process.
2. Cultural Rules, through which political system determines cultural values.
3. Communicatory Instruments, through which the political system increases the possibility of its control over output.

They include Press, Radio and T.V. etc.
4. Reductionist Reactions or Aggregation, through which the possibility of demands is reduced as is done by unification etc.

Apart from Demands, the other input in the environment is the political support. Support can be of three types:

• Overt or Covert
• Positive or Negative
• General and Widespread or Particular or special.

Levels of Support:
There are three levels of support; namely:

• Political community
• Regime
• Authorities.
  

Support, according to Easton, can be towards three types of special things:
1. Towards political community which is based on labour division,

2. Towards the basic values of Political System and

3. Towards Political Authorities.

4. Feedback:
Feedback means to take back to the system in shape of inputs, the impact and result of the outputs. This brings continuity in the System. According to Easton, the Feedback is the process of combining the results of outputs with inputs and establishing a cyclic relationship between inputs and outputs. Feedback can be of two types:

• The Negative Feedback: This is related to the information relating to the system and defective rule making.
• Objective Alerting Feedback is related to the purpose and direction of political system.

Flow Model:
Easton found certain defects in the Equilibrium analysis of Almond and presented his input and output analysis as Flow Model. He tried to prove that the Political Analysis depends upon the capacity of the system.

Question 5.
Write main differences between state and political system.
Answer:
Modern political concepts vastly differ from traditional Political concepts. The writers of traditional Political Science considered State, its main subject whereas the modern writers regard Political System in place of State, its primary subject.

State, in ancient time, was regarded the main subject of Political Science. So Prof. Garner opined, “Political System begins and ends with the State.” Like Garner, writers like Bluntschli, Gettell, Garies, Gilchrist, Lord Acton etc. considered State the central point of Political Science. But the modern writers don’t agree with this traditional viewpoint. For them, Political System instead of State, is the main subject of Political Science.

They are of the view that to confine the scope of Political Science to State only, is to destroy its practical utility. These main writers are Almond and Powell, Charles Merriam, Harold Lasswell, David Easton, Stephen, L. Wasby. According to Almond and Powell, a vast structure is needed to make Political Science more effective and system analysis can provide this structure. State and Political System differ from each other, but it is essential to explain the meaning of ‘State’ and ‘Political System’ before pointing out main distinction between the two.

Meaning of State:
In the words of Prof. Gilchrist, “The State exists where a number of people brought on a definite territory are unified under a Government which in internal matter is the organ for expressing their sovereignty and in external matter is independent of other Governments.” This definition clearly points out that population, definite territory, Government and Sovereignty are the four main elements without which a State cannot be established. If any of these four elements is missing, State can’t be founded.

Meaning of Political System:
According to Almond and Powell, “When we speak of Political System, we include all the interactions which affect the use of threat or use of Legitimate Physical force. The Political System includes not only Governmental institutions such as legislatures, courts and administrative agencies, but all structures in their political aspects. Among these are traditional structures such as kinship ties and caste grouping; and anomic phenomena such as assassinations, riots and demonstrations; as well as formal organisations like parties, interest groups and media of communications.

In this way, Political System includes all the formal and informal institutions, groups and organisations which affect political life in one way or the other, besides Governmental organisations. The Political System is not only concerned with the formulation of laws and their implementation but also to get them obeyed forcibly.

Differences between State and Political System:
Following are the main differences between State and Political System

1. State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many:
The main difference between the State and Political System is that the State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many. Population, definite territory, Government and sovereignty are the four essential elements of the State. The existence of State can’t be even imagined in the absence of a single element.

But Political System has numerous elements instead of certain elements, such as, exploration of Political effects, attainment of legitimacy, influence of other subjects and Political Systems and the study of reactions. It is difficult to determine the elements of Political System since it is not a combination of particular elements but of the mutual interactions of different roles.

2. State deals with legal and institutional structure but Political System deals with the processes:
State is concerned with legal and institutional structure whereas the Political system deals with processes. Many writers presented models related to these processes which deal with Political System.

3. Scope of Political System is wider than that of State:
The scope of Political System is wider than that of State. State is mainly concerned with formal institutions whereas Political System includes processes, whether formal or informal. The boundaries of Political System are the widest ones as they are practical and based on scientific policies. According to Almond and Powell, “The Political System includes not only governmental institutions, such as legislature, courts and. administrative agencies, but all structures in these Political aspects.” The concept of Political System is wider than the concept of State.

4. Sovereignty is the main feature of State while legitimate physical coercive force is the main feature of Political System:
Internal and external sovereignty is the most important feature of State. State is omnipotent and all the citizens and institutions have to obey its orders. But the concept of sovereignty holds no importance in Political System. Modern political writers don’t believe that any Political System is free from internal and external influences. They accept the view that Political System is certainly affected by intra-societal and extra-societal environment.

Along with it, the importance of external sovereignty has lessened in the modern international age. The Political System of every country is affected by the Political Systems of other countries. Modern Political Scientists use the expression ‘Legitimate physical coercive force’ in place of Internal sovereignty. In fact, according to their view point, Political System has power to legitimate coercive force.

5. State is a traditional concept while Political System is a modern one:
State is a traditional concept and generally the concepts like State, nation, Government, Constitution, laws, sovereignty have been used in traditional Politics. But the use of the word ‘State’ and other concepts connected with it have lessened nowadays. If a writer, in modern age, uses the word ‘State’ in place of Political System, he is called traditional.

6. Political System implies the existence of interdependent parts, while the concept of State is devoid of such character:
According to Almond and Powell, “A system implies the interdependence of parts and a boundary between it and environment. By interdependence, we mean that when the characteristics of one part in a system change, all other parts and the system as a whole are affected.”

The Governmental institutions i.e. legislature, judiciary and executive , political parties, welfare groups etc. are considered parts of a Political System. When any part of it undergoes a significant change, the whole system is affected. No such characteristic is present in the concept of State.

7. Boundaries of State fixed whereas it is not possible to restrict the boundaries of the Political System:
The State has fixed boundaries. So it is possible to estimate the beginning and end of the boundaries. But Political Systems can’t be restricted in boundaries. The boundaries of Political System are the boundaries of its processes. These boundaries are liable to change.

8. States are the same everywhere, but Political Systems are different. States are the same at every place:
Whether the States are big or small, their four elements-Population, definite territory, Government and sovereignty are essential. The four elements are found in the States of India, England, Japan, China, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma) and Russia. But the forms of Political System are different in various States.

9. State is Permanent while political system is dynamic:
State is permanent whereas the Political System is dynamic. State comes to an end when it is deprived of sovereignty. But the state is re-established by regaining sovereignty. Political System is dynamic and it goes on changing according to time and circumstances.

10. The concept of Political System involves the process of conversion of inputs into outputs while the concept of State deals with some specific functions:
The process of conversion of inputs into outputs is the important characteristic of Political System. David Easton is of the view that Political System is another name of the process of conversion of outputs into inputs which is related to political decisions. This process always continues in a political system. To fulfill the aim, Political System has to perform rule-making functions, rule-application functions and rule- adjudication functions. But the State has to perform particular functions. Political writers have divided the functions of the State into two categories:
(i) Compulsory functions and
(ii) Optional functions.
Some aspects of cultural, religious, moral and social life are considered beyond the jurisdiction of State. But no aspect of life, if its any part is related to politics, can be segregated from Political System.

11. Concept of Political System is more analytical than State:
State is a descriptive view-it can be explained but not analysed. But contrary to it Political system is an analytical concept. The existence of State is only in the minds of individuals and can’t be found in real life.

12. Political System is a better means of bringing integration and adaptation than the State:
Another difference between the State and political system is that Political System is a better means of bringing integration and adaptation to the state. According to Almond and Powell, “The Political System is that System of interactions to be found in all dependent societies while performing the functions of integration and adaptations.”

13. Political Socialisation and Political Culture have special importance in Political System, not for the State.

Conclusion:
In the end, we can say that State is a traditional concept whereas Political System is a modern concept. The scope of Political System is wider than that of State.

Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Write down the meaning of Political System. Or Which system is called Political System?
Answer:
The term political system consists of 1. Political 2. System. The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. The word ‘System’ is used for a set of clear interactions which have definite boundaries. According to Oxford Dictionary, ‘A system is a complete whole, a set of connected things or parts, organised body of material or immaterial things.’ Political System includes not only formal governmental structure but it also includes traditional and informal structures like kinship, caste, group, etc. Political System is related to the proper use of power. A political system is actually that which includes all legal, formal, informal, social and political elements in a society.

Question 2.
Define Political System.
Answer:

• According to Max Weber, “A political system is a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.”
• Robert A. Dahl defines political system as, “Any persistent pattern of human relationship that involves to a significant extent power, rule or authority.”
• According to Almond and Powell, “When we speak of political system, we include all interactions which affect the use of threat of legitimate coercion.”

Question 3.
Describe the functions of Political System.
Answer:
According to Almond, Political System performs two types of functions-Input functions and Output functions.
1. Input functions:
Input functions are performed by non-governmental sub-systems, society and general environment. Almond suggested four input functions of a Political System:

• Political Socialization and Recruitment.
• Interest Articulation.
• Interest Aggregation.
• Political Communication.

2. Output functions. Almond has suggested three main output functions:

• Rule Making.
• Rule Application.
• Rule Adjudication.

Question 4.
Write any four differences between State and Political System Or Distinguish between State and Political System.
Answer:
Following are the main differences between State and Political System:
1. State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many. Population, definite Territory, Government and Sovereignty are the four essential elements of the state. But Political System has numerous elements.

2. Sovereignty is the main feature of State while legitimate physical coercive force is the main feature of Political System.

3. State is permanent while Political System is dynamic.

4. States are the same everywhere, but Political Systems are different. States are the same at every place whether the States are big or small. Their four elements Population, definite territory, Government and sovereignty are essentials. But the forms of Political System are different in various States.

Question 5.
What are boundaries of a Political System?
Answer:
Each political system has boundaries which separate it from economic, social and cultural systems. Almond defines boundaries as ‘points where one political system ends and the other political system begins’. The boundaries between society and polity differ from one political system to another. The boundaries of the political system are not territorial boundaries ; these boundaries relate to human relationships and their activities. But the boundaries of a political system change from time to time.

Question 6.
Describe input functions of Political System. Or Write down the input functions of Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested four input functions of a Political System:
1. Political Socialization and Recruitment:
According to Almond and Powell, “Political socialization is the process through which political cultures are maintained or changed.” So the process of political socialization can be utilised for both bringing a change as well as for maintaining status-quo. The process of socialization in a system is supplemented by Recruitment.

2. Interest Articulation: In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a System.

3. Interest Aggregation:
In no political system different laws for the interests of different groups can be created. A common policy is formulated for the interests of almost all the groups.

4. Political Communication: Political communication is the most important function of a Political System.

Question 7.
Write three output functions of Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested three main output functions:
1. Rule Making:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule making function is performed by the legislature and its allied agencies.

2. Rule Application: The function of the political system is not only making rules, but also to apply them.

3. Rule Adjudication:
Whenever a rule is created, the fear of its violation is always present. Now, he who violates these rules, must be punished. This is the function of courts or the judiciary or in modern terminology, the Rule Adjudication department.

Question 8.
What is the meaning of the word ‘Political’?
Answer:
The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. All the interactions involved in the struggle for power are ‘Political’. Any association becomes ‘Political’ when its rules or decisions are obeyed by its members with the use of threat or physical force. According to Max Weber, “An association should be called political if and in so far as the enforcement of its order is carried out continually within a given territorial area by the application of threat or physical force.” Political includes power, influence, control or authority to a significant extent.

Question 9.
What do you mean by the term System?
Answer:
According to Oxford Dictionary, “A system is a complete whole, a set of connected things or parts, organised body of material or immaterial things.” The word system has been used and defined differently by different writers belonging to different disciplines. Ludwin Van Bertall Anfy describes system as a “Set of elements standing in interaction.”

Collin Cherry says that a system, “is a whole which is compound of many parts-an ensemble of attitudes.” According to Gabriel A. Almond ,“A system implies the interdependence of parts and a boundary between it and environment.” By environment, we mean that when the characteristics of one part in a system change, all other parts and the system as a whole are affected. The main characteristics of a system are:

1. Comprehensiveness
2. Interdependence
3. Existence of boundaries
4. Existence of sub-system
5. Wholeness etc.

Question 10.
What is Interest Aggregation? Who performs this function?
Answer:
In no political system different laws for the interests of different groups can be created. A common policy is formulated for the interests of almost all the groups. The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation. According to Almond and Powell, “The functions of converting demands into general policy alternative is called interest aggregation.”

There are two ways to perform this function First by coordinating the interests of various natures and second by the recruitment of those who have faith in the one national policy. An individual wants a particular thing to be done on the basis of his interests. Interest groups aggregate the interests of various groups to make a demand.

Question 11.
What is Feedback-Loop Mechanism? Or Describe the Process of ‘Feedback-Loop’ of David Easton. Or What do you mean by Feedback Loop mechanism?
Answer:
The concept of Feedback-Loop Mechanism in Political System is given by David Easton. He says that political system is a process to convert inputs into outputs and there is a close relationship between inputs and outputs. The decisions which are made by political system in a form of outputs once again take form of raw material for inputs. This process of providing raw material to a system again and again continues. David Easton called this process Feedback-Loop Mechanism.

Question 12.
Write four main characteristics of Political System.
Answer:
The main characteristics of political system are as follows:
1. Comprehensiveness:
The political system does not include only the governmental structures, but also those formal and informal organizations which take part in one way or other in political process and influence the political authority.

2. Interdependence:
According to Almond, political system also includes the political aspects of various sub-systems. Any change in any sub-system is bound to affect functioning of other sub-systems.

3. Existence of Boundaries:
It implies that there are points where political system ends and other system begins. Each political system has boundaries which separate it from economic, social and cultural system.

4. Universality of Political System
According to Almond, all political systems whether primitive or modern or whether developing or developed, have political structure.

Question 13.
What is Interest Articulation? Or Explain the Interest Articulation function of Political System.
Answer:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call, interest articulation.” Different individuals and groups present their demands or articulate their interests before those who have the right to make decisions. It is an importai?t process in the political system, because unless the groups or individuals do not present their demands before the rulers, no policy can be formulated and their demands cannot be met.

If the groups or individuals in a system are not allowed to present their demands or interests, it may lead to violent activities. Interests, in a political system, can be articulated by way of petitions, suggestions, addresses, statements, demonstrations or even violent means. Students and labour groups adopt the technique of strikes etc. The democratic system provides proper means for interest articulation to the people.

Question 14.
What do you mean by universality of Political Structures?
Answer:
According to Almond, all political systems have same structures that perform same functions though with varying degree of frequency. The articulative, aggregative and communicative functions may be performed diffusely within the society or intermittently through the kinship or lineage structure. An adequate analysis of a political system must locate and characterise all of these functions and not simply those performed by the specialised political structure.

Question 15.
Describe the multifunctionality of Political Structure.
Answer:
According to Almond, all political structures irrespective of the degree of specialization in point of time or space, are multifunctional. Multifunctionality of political structure means that a political structure performs not one type of functions but many types of functions. For example, courts not only adjudicate, they also legislate. Similarly, Legislatures not only legislate but they also perform administrative functions.

Question 16.
What do you mean by Inputs?
Answer:
According to David Easton, input in a political system is like the raw material which when supplemented by support takes the form of outputs. Easton has described two types of inputs in a political system: Demand and Support.

Very Short Answer type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of Political System.
Answer:
The term political system consists of 1. Political 2. System.
The word ‘Political’ reflects power or authority. The word ‘System’ is used for a set of clear interactions which have definite boundaries. Political System is related to the proper use of power. A political system is actually that which includes all legal, formal, informal, social and political elements in a society.

Question 2.
Give two definitions of a Political System.
Answer:

• According to Max Weber, “A political system is a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.”
• Robert A. Dahl defines political system as, “Any persistent pattern of human relationship that involves to a significant extent power, role or authority.”

Question 3.
Mention the functions of Political System.
Answer:
According to Almond, Political System performs two types of functions-Input functions and Output functions.
1. Input functions:
Input functions are performed by non-governmental sub-systems, society and general environment. Almond suggested four input functions of a Political System.

2. Output functions:
Almond has suggested three main output functions:

• Rule Making
• Rule Application
• Rule Adjudication.

Question 4.
Write down two differences between State and Political System.
Answer:
Following are the main differences between State and Political System:

• State has four essential elements whereas Political System has many. Population, definite Territory, Government and Sovereignty are the four essential elements of the state. But Political System has numerous elements.
• Sovereignty is the main feature of State while legitimate physical coercive force is the main feature of Political System.

Question 5.
Write down any two general characteristics of a political system as given by Prof. Robert A Dahl.
Answer:

• Uneven Control of Political Resources. According to Robert A. Dahl, “Control over political resources is distributed unevenly.”
• The Quest for Political Influence. In almost every political system there are some members who seek to gain influence over the policies, rules and decisions enforced by the government i.e. political influence.

Question 6.
Write two input functions of a Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested four input functions of a Political System:
1. Political Socialization and Recruitment:
According to Almond and Powell, “Political socialization is the process through which political cultures are maintained or changed.” So the process of political socialization can be utilized for both bringing a change as well as for maintaining status-quo. The process of socialization in a system is supplemented by Recruitment.

2. Interest Articulation. In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a System.

Question 7.
Write down any two output functions of a Political System.
Answer:
Almond has suggested three main output functions:
1. Rule Making:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule making function is performed by the legislature and its allied agencies.

2. Rule Application: The function of the political system is not only making rules, but also to apply them.

Question 8.
What do you mean by Interest Aggregation?
Answer:
The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation. According to Almond and Powell, “The functions of converting demands into general policy alternative is called interest aggregation.”

Question 9.
Explain the Feedback-Loop System.
Answer:
The concept of Feedback-Loop Mechanism in Political System is given by David Easton. He says that political system is a process to convert inputs into outputs and there is a close relationship between inputs and outputs. The decisions which are made by political system in a form of outputs once again take form of raw material for inputs. This process of providing raw material to a system again and again continues. David Easton called this process Feedback-Loop Mechanism.

Question 10.
Write two main characteristics of Political System.
Answer:
1. Comprehensiveness:
The political system does not include only the governmental structures, but also those formal and informal organizations which take part in one way or other in political process and influence the political authority.

2. Interdependence:
According to Almond, political system also includes the political aspects of various sub-systems. Any change in any sub-system is bound to affect functioning of other sub-systems.

Question 11.
Explain Interest Articulation.
Answer:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call, interest articulation.”

Question 12.
Who wrote the book “The Political System’ and when?
Answer:
The book ‘The Political System’ was written by David Easton in 1953.

Question 13.
What do you mean by Political Communication?
Answer:
Political Communication is the most important function of a Political System. It is through this process that other functions are performed. Everybody, whether a citizen or an official, has to depend upon information, because all activities in a system are to be regulated on the basis of information. That is why in a democratic system there is too much of emphasis on the freedom of press, speech and expression, whereas it is crushed or controlled in a totalitarian system.

Question 14.
Who is the author of The Process of Government’?
Answer:
Arthur Bentley is the author of ‘The Process of Government’.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of the word ‘Political’ in Political System.
Or
What is meaning of word ‘Politics’ in the Political System?
Answer:
A community or an association is called political if its orders are enforced by the administrative staff through coercion or physical force.

Question 2.
Give the meaning of system.
Answer:
The word ‘System’ is used to indicate a group of interactions.

Question 3.
Write the meaning of Political System.
Answer:
A political system means that persistent pattern of relationships whose conduct involves authority or power.

Question 4.
Write any one definition of Political System.
Answer:
David Easton has said, “Political system is a set of interactions abstracted from the totality of social behaviour, through which authoritative values are allocated for a society.”

Question 5.
Write one feature of Political System.
Answer:
Political system is found in every society.

Question 6.
Write down one output function of the Political System.
Answer:
Rule making is an important output function of a Political System.

Question 7.
Write any one input function performed by a Political System.
Answer:
Political Socialisation and Recruitment.

Question 8.
Mention any one difference between State and Political System.
Answer:
A political system has interdependence of parts but a state does not have any such feature.

Question 9.
What do you mean by Feedback Loop Mechanism? Explain.
Answer:
Feedback means to reprocess the results of the outputs as inputs in the system.

Question 10.
Write the definition of Political System given by Almond and Powell.
Answer:
Almond and Powell has stated, “When we speak of political system, we include all interactions which affect the use or threat of legitimate coercion.”

Question 11.
Who is the writer of famous book ‘The Political System’?
Answer:
David Easton.

Question 12.
Which political thinker used the term “The Political System’ first time?
Answer:
David Easton.

Question 13.
Write any one difference between State and Political System.
Answer:
There are four elements of State, but elements of political system are not fixed.

Question 14.
What is Interest Articulation?
Answer:
In simple words, Interest Articulation is the presentation of Demands in a system. According to Almond and Powell, “The process by which individuals and groups make demands upon the political decision makers, we call interest articulation. ”

Question 15.
What is Interest Aggregation?
Answer:
The process of combining the interests of various groups is known as Interest Aggregation.

Question 16.
What do you mean by ‘Rule Making Function’?
Answer:
There must be certain rules in the society to regulate the relationships between the individuals. In a political system the rule-making function is performed by the Legislature and its allied agencies.

Question 17.
What is ‘Rule Adjudication Function’?
Answer:
Almost every rule contains in itself the punishment for those, who violate it. But before such a punishment is given to any individual it must be established that he had actually violated the rule of the land. This is the function of courts or the judiciary or in modern terminology, the Rule Adjudication department.

Question 18.
What is ‘Rule Application Function’?
Answer:
In a political system ‘Rule application’ is the responsibility of bureaucracy. Even the judicial decisions are implemented by the civil servants. Sometime this function is performed by the rule-making department also. But in a developed political system the two functions are performed by separate departments.

Question 19.
Write two input demands.
Answer:
1. Demand for the allocation of goods and services.
2. Demand for regulation of behavior.

Fill In The Blanks

1. The concept of Feedback Loop Mechanism is given by ………………… .
Answer:
David Easton

2. ‘The Political System’ of David Easton was published in ………………… .
Answer:
1953

3. Political System is found in every ………………… .
Answer:
society

4. Rule making is an important ……………… function of a Political System.
Answer:
output

5. Political Socialisation and Recruitment is an ……………… function performed by Political System.
Answer:
input.

True Or False Statement

1. Almond Powell is the writer of famous book ‘The Political System’.
Answer:
False

2. David Easton is the writer of famous book The Political System’.
Answer:
True

3. The concept of Political System originated in the 20th century.
Answer:
True

4. There are four elements of Political System.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Who is the writer of famous hook The Political System’?
(a) David Easton
(b) Almond
(c) Max Weber
(d) Lasswell.
Answer:
(a) David Easton

Question 2.
The concept of Political System originated in the:
(a) 19th Century
(b) 18th Century
(c) 20th Century
(d) 17th Century.
Answer:
(c) 20th Century

Question 3.
Who gave the concept of Feedback Loop Mechanism?
(a) Almond
(b) David Easton
(c) Lasswell
(d) Max Weber.
Answer:
(b) David Easton

Question 4.
Which of the following is not a feature of Political System?
(a) Political System is found in developed countries.
(b) Political System is found in every society.
(c) Political System has interdependence of parts.
(d) Universality of Political System.
Answer:
(a) Political System is found in developed countries.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 1 Tribal Society Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 12th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 1 Tribal Society

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Where do tribals live?
(a) Mountains
(b) Forests
(c) Valleys
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

2. Which of these is the other name given to the tribal people?
(a) Vanvasi
(b) Adam Jati
(c) Scheduled tribes
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

3. What name was given by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to the tribals?
(a) Pahari
(b) Scheduled castes
(c) Adivasi
(d) Vanvasi
Answer:
(b) Scheduled castes

4. What is the percentage of the tribal population in India?
(a) 8.2%
(b) 9.2%
(c) 7.2%
(d) 10.2%
Answer:
(a) 8.2%

5. Which of these is the largest tribe in India?
(a) Santhal
(b) Naga
(c) Bhil
(d) Munda
Answer:
(a) Santhal

6. Who gave the racial classification of tribals?
(a) Majumdar
(b) Madaan
(c) Sir Herbert Risley
(d) Nadeem Hashian
Answer:
(c) Sir Herbert Risley

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Gond tribe is related with ……………. group.
Answer:
Dravid

2. Major occupation of Bhils is ……………….
Answer:
agriculture

3. The custom of bride price prevails among ……………..
Answer:
Santhals

4. Tribals are uprooted from their places due to ……………….
Answer:
Displacement

5. In ………………….. type of family, authority is in the hands of mothers.
Answer:
Matriarchal

True/False:

1. Tribal people do shifting cultivation.
Answer:
True

2. Gond tribe lives in Punjab.
Answer:
False

3. There are seven Indian tribes whose population is one lac or more.
Answer:
True

4. On the basis of authority, there are two types of family.
Answer:
True

5. On the basis of place of living, there are four types of family.
Answer:
True

One Word/One Line Questions Answers:

Question 1.
In which part of India, tribes live more in number?
Answer:
Most of the tribes live in Central and in the north-eastern part of India.

Question 2.
Where do tribals live?
Answer:
Tribals live very much away from our civilization in forests, mountains, and valleys.

Question 3.
What are the other names given to the tribal people?
Answer:
Tribals are known by different names such as Vanyajati, Vanvasi, Pahari, Aadim jati, Janjati, and Scheduled castes.

Question 4.
What name has the Indian Constitution given to the tribes?
Answer:
The Indian Constitution has given them the name of Scheduled tribes.

Question 5.
Who gave the name of Scheduled tribes?
Answer:
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Question 6.
From where did the word ‘Tribe’ derive?
Answer:
The word ‘Tribe’ is derived from a Latin word ‘Tribuz’ which means ‘one third’.

Question 7.
In which article of the Indian Constitution, the name of Scheduled castes is mentioned?
Answer:
Article 342.

Question 8.
Where do Naga, Khasi and Toda tribes live?
Answer:
Naga tribe lives in Nagaland, Khasi tribe in Assam and Toda tribe in the Nilgiri hills of south India.

Question 9.
Which language do Gond and Bhil people speak?
Answer:
Gonds speak Gondi language and Bhils speak Bhili language.

Question 10.
Which language do Santhal and Munda tribes speak?
Answer:
Santhal tribe speaks Santhali and Munda tribe speaks Mundari language.

Question 11.
What is the percentage of tribal population in India?
Answer:
In 2011, the tribal population constituted 8.2% of the total Indian population.

Question 12.
In which Indian states there is minimum and maximum tribal population?
Answer:
Goa has minimum tribal population and Mizoram has maximum tribal population.

Question 13.
In which Indian Union Territories, there is minimum and maximum tribal population?
Answer:
Lakshdweep has maximum tribal population and Andaman and Nicobar has minimum tribal population.

Question 14.
Name the largest Indian tribe and where does it live?
Answer:
Santhal is the largst Indian tribe and it lives in West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha.

Question 15.
What is the base of division of labour in tribal society?
Answer:
Division of labour in tribal society is based on age and gender.

Question 16.
What type of economy do tribals have?
Answer:
Tribals have subsistence economy and barter system.

Question 17.
Who divided Indian tribes on racial basis?
Answer:
Sir Herbert Risley divided Indian tribes on racial basis.

Question 18.
Give different names of Shifting Cultivation.
Answer:
This is known as Jhuming in India, Milpa in Maxico, Roca in Brazil and Ladang in Malaysia.

Question 19.
Name seven Indian tribes whose population is more than one lac.
Answer:
Gond, Bhil, Santhal, Mina, Oraon, Munda and Khond.

Question 20.
Where does Gond tribe live?
Answer:
Gond tribe lives in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha etc.

Question 21.
Name the language spoken by the Gond tribe.
Answer:
Gona tribe speaks Gondi and Chattisgarhi language.

Question 22.
Where does Bhil tribe live?
Answer:
Bhil tribe lives in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tripura.

Question 23.
Name the language spoken by Bhil tribe and which is their important festival?
Answer:
Bhil tribe speaks Bhili language and Holi is their important festival.

Question 24.
Where does Santhal tribe live?
Answer:
Santhal tribe lives in Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Odisha.

Question 25.
Name the languages spoken by the Santhals.
Answer:
Santhals speak Santhali, Oriya, Bangla and Hindi of Bihar.

Question 26.
On the basis of authority, how many types of tribes are there?
Answer:
On the basis of authority, there are two types of tribes, patriarchal and matriarchal.

Question 27.
How many types of tribes are there on the basis of place of residence?
Answer:
Four types—patrilocal, matrilocal, bilocal and neolocal.

Question 28.
How many types of tribes are there on the basis of descent?
Answer:
Three types—patrilineal, matrilineal and double descent system.

Question 29.
How many types of marriages are thefe in tribal society?
Answer:
There are nine types of marriages in tribal society.

Question 30.
Which tribes live in Central India?
Answer:
Tribes such as Gonds, Bheel, Santhal, Oraon-etc. live in Central India.

Question 31.
What name was given to the tribals by G.S. Ghurye?
Answer:
G.S. Gurye called tribals as ‘Backward Hindus’.

Question 32.
Name the largest Indian tribe and where do they live?
Answer:
Santhal is the largest Indian tribe and they live’ in West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha.

Question 33.
Give one feature of tribal society.
Answer:
A tribe is a collection of families which live in a common area and has a common name and language.

Question 34.
Name any two Matrilineal tribes.
Answer:
Garo and Khasi are two Matrilineal tribe.

Question 35.
Give one feature of tribal economy.
Answer:
Tribal economy is small in size, subsistence nature and depends upon simple technique.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Which tribes are known as Scheduled tribes?
Answer:
There are many tribes in India which live in different parts of country. Those tribes whose names are written in the Constitution and which have maintained their separate tribal identity, are known as Scheduled tribes.

Question 2.
What is a tribe?
Answer:
Tribe is a social group which lives in a specific geographical area in natural condition, whose members have cultural similarity and have unified social organisation.

Question 3.
What names are given to tribes by different scholars?
Answer:
Normally, tribal people are called as Adivasi but G.S. Ghurye called them Backward Hindus. Mahatma Gandhi called them as Girijan, J.H. Hutton called them as Primitive tribals and in the Indian Constitution, they are referred as Scheduled castes.

Question 4.
According to Article 342 of the Constitution, what are the features of tribes?
Answer:
According to Article 342 of the Constitution, they have the following features :

• Primitive traits
• Geographical isolation
• Distinct culture
• Economically backward
• Shyness of contact with community at large.

Question 5.
Two features of tribal society.
Answer:

• Tribal society lives in a particular geographical area and we can call it as a collection of families.
• Each tribes has its own specific culture, language and religion. They never like to get interfered -by any one.

Question 6.
What is meant by Chieftainship?
Answer:
Each tribe has its own political system whose head is elected on the basis of physical strength, age or experience. Head or Chief has all despotic powers and his decision is final. His decisions are obeyed by all. Thisf system is known as Chieftainship.

Question 7.
What is Subsistence economy?
Answer:
Tribal economy is based on subsistence and their means of production are fishing, collecting, hunting and forest products. They never keep any thihg with them. Whatever they collect, consume it. But from last few decades, their economy is changing.

Question 8.
What type of division of labour is there in tribal society?
Answer:
Division of labour in tribal societies is based on age and gender. There is nothing called specialisation in these societies which exists in the present modern societies. All collectively hunt down the animals and collect the things. Females take care of the houses.

Question 9.
Tell in brief about the Dravidian tribes.
Answer:
This type of tribes are spread from the Ganga valley of West Bengal till Sri Lanka which includes Chennai, Hyderabad, Central India and the region of Chotta Nagpur. They are also known as the original inhabitants of India. They are of dark complexion with black eyes, long head and broad nose.

Question 10.
Explain the tribal classification given by B.K. Roy.
Answer:

• Those tribes which have completely, assimilated in the Hindu society system.
• Those tribes which keep positive orientation towards Hindu social order.
• Those tribes which keep negative orientation towards Hindu social order.
• Those tribe which are indifferent towards Hindu social order.

Question 11.
Patriarchal Tribe.
Answer:
It is that tribe which is controlled by father and whole family obeys his orders. Descent goes through father and son gets father’s property. Father is the head of family and monogamy is there in family. Due to the dominance of father, it is known as Patriarchal tribe.

Question 12.
Matriarchal Tribe.
Answer:
That tribe which is run by mothers and family is run according to mother’s will. Descent goes through mother’s name and property is given to daughter. Mother is head of the family. Due to mother’s dominance, it is known as matriarchal tribe.

Question 13.
Name the issues which tribal societies are facing.
Answer:
Tribal societies are facing two major issues and these are deforestation and displacement. Forests are being cut down because of which their means of livelihood are decreasing. Secondly they are displaced from their original places and are forced to settle in other areas.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Tribe.
Answer:
A tribe is that group of people which lives quite away from our civilization on mountains, forests and valleys and in ancient conditions. This group lives in a specific geographical area which has its own different language, culture and religion. These groups are endogamous groups and obey some rules from the point of views of love, occupation and industry. These people are very much different from our culture, civilization and society. Different tribes are also Vhry much different from each other on many bases like social structure, language, culture etc.

Question 2.
Tribal Society.
Answer:
Tribe is a group of people which lives away from our civilization on mountains, forests and valleys and in ancient conditions. The society which exists in these tribes is known as tribal society. Tribal society is a classless society in which there is no existence of stratification of any type. Most of the population of tribal society lives either on mountain or in forests. These societies are generally self dependent who have control on themselves and these are very much out of control of any one. Tribal society is completely different from rural and urban society from the point of view of social structure and culture.

Question 3.
Two definitions of Tribe.
Answer:

• According to Imperial Gazetteer of India, “A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous, though originally it might have been so.”
• According to D.N. Majumdar, “A tribe is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, member of which occupy the same territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, profession or occupation and have developed a well-assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality of obligation.”

Question 4.
Four characteristics of Tribal Society.
Answer:

• Tribe is a group of many families in which common production is there and they fulfill their needs from that production.
• Tribal people live in one common geographical area and due to living in one geographical area they are different from the other society.
• Every tribe has its common language and different name because of which they are very much different from each other.
• Every tribe has its own different ways of living, religion, language, taboo etc. because of which their culture is also different from each other.

Question 5.
Tribe lives in a common territory. Explain.
Answer:
People of a tribe lives in a common and definite geographical territory. They are very much different and live away from other parts of society due to this common and definite geographical territory. That’s why they are out of the reach of the rest of the society. Because they have their own different culture and they never like the interference of any one in their tribe and that’s why they never likes to keep any type of relation with rest of the society. They have their own different world. They have the community feeling because they live in a common territory.

Question 6.
Tribal Society is a Segmentary Society. How?
Answer:
Every tribal society is different from other society on many basis like ways of eating habits, language, geographical area etc. They are different from each other on many basis and never like to interfere in each other’s matters. They don’t have any type of discrimination with any one and that’s why they are known as Segmentary Societies.

Question 7.
Division of tribes on racial basis.
Answer:
According to Majumdar and Madaan Indian tribes can be divided in three parts on the basis of geographical distribution and these are :

• North Eastern Zone
• Central Zone and
• Southern Zone.

In these three geographical areas we can find the three types of racial elements yet they cannot be strictly divided. These three races are :

• Mangoloid
• Proto-Australoid
• Negrito.

Question 8.
Division of tribes on the geographical basis.
Answer:
Dr. V.S. Guha has divided Indian tribes in three geographical parts and these are :

• North and North Eastern Zone. This area is spread from Leh and up to the Lushai mountains north of Shimla in which the hilly areas of Himachal, eastern Punjab, U.P., Eastern Kashmir, Assam are included. Main tribes in this are Gaddi, Naga, Kuki, Khasi, Tharu, Bhutia etc.
• Central Zone. This area includes the area of south of Ganga and north of Krishna river in which Vindhyanchal, ancient mountains of Satpura are coming. Tribes of Munda, Bhil, Santhal, Ho, Chenchu etc. are included in it.
• Southern Zone. Whole area of south of Krishna river is included in it. Tribes of Pulyan, Malayan, Chenchu, Toda, Kota etc. come in it.

Question 9.
Division of tribes on linguistic basis.
Answer:
Language which exists in India can be divided in four main parts and these are :

• Indo European or Aryan language. Languages of Punjabi, Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Orria etc. are coming in it.
• Dravidian languages. Languages of Telugu, Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada etc. come in it.
• Austric languages. Bhunda, Kola etc. languages come in it.
• Tibeto Chinese languages. Many tribes of India use these languages also.

Question 10.
Division of tribes on Economic basis.
Answer:
Indian tribes can be divided in four parts on economic basis and these four parts are :

• Hunters and food gatherers
• Animal rearing tribes
• Agriculturist tribes
• Tribes related with industries.

Question 11.
Two main Matrilineal Tribes in India.
Answer:
Garo tribe and Khasi tribe are the two major matrilineal tribes of India. The meaning of materihneal tribes is by that tribe where not father but the mother have more importance anjf where descent of the family moves with the name of mother. After marriage bridegroom goes to bride’s house to live and property is given to daughter from her mother. This type of system exists in Garo and Khasi tribes.

Question 12.
Polygamy.
Answer:
When a man marries two or more females then this type of marriage is known as polygamy. This type of marriage was sanctioned by society even in ancient times. This type of marriage prevails in many tribes like Toda, Gonds, Naga, Muthuven, Poliyan etc. It is of two types. First is restricted polygamy in which the number of wives are restricted arid person cannot keep more wives than its limit. Second type is unrestricted polygamy in which there is no limit on keeping number of wives. A person can keep as many wives as he wants. There is no such restriction on it.

Question 13.
Polyandry.
Answer:
In this type of marriage one female has many husbands. For example in Mahabhartha, Dropadi had five husbands. In the tribes of Khas, Toda, Kot etc. this custom of marriage prevails. According to Kapadia, “Polyandry is a form of union in which a woman has more than one husband at a time or in. which brothers share a wife or wives in common.” It is also of two types.

• Fraternal Polyandry
• Non-fraternal polyandry.

Question 14.
Fraternal Polyandry.
Answer:
Fraternal Polyandry. According to this type of marriage, .one female has many males and they all are brothers of each other. Elder brother is considered as father of children and younger brother cannot establish relations with their wife without the permission of elder brother. This type of brothers prevails in Khas tribe. If any other brother marries with any other female then his wife is also considered as wife of other brother. If any brother takes birth after the marriage then he is also considered as her husband.

Question 15.
Non-Fraternal Polyandry.
Answer:
Non-Fraternal Polyandry. In this type of marriage all the husbands of a women are not brothers of each other but they live very much away from each other. Female goes to one husband to live for a limited period of time. During that limited period no other husband can establish contact with his wife. At the time of pregnancy, if any husband gives the gift of arrow and bow to his wife then he is considered as the father of the child.

Question 16.
Marriage by Purchase.
Answer:
Marriage by Purchase. This type of marriage exists in many tribes. In this type of marriage, value of the bride is generally given in the form of money or in the form of produce of agriculture. Though a person buys his wife in this type of marriage but it should not be considered as the means of sale and purchase. Actually a person gives compensation to his in-laws for the upbringing of his wife. This type of marriage exists in the tribes of Santhal, Ho, Naga, Munda, Oraon etc..

Question 17.
Marriage by” Exchange.
Answer:
Marriage by Exchange. This type of marriage came into being for the reason to not to give value of the bride. In many tribes the bride’s value is so high that the person is unable to pay that value. That’s why they exchange the females of their family. Person gives his sister or any female of his family in lieu of his wife. This type of marriage also exists in Hindu Society.

Question 18.
Marriage by capture.
Answer:
Marriage by Capture. This type of marriage also prevails in many tribal societies. In earlier times, one rule was there that parents were giving sanctions to the marriage but with the passage of time, views of children are changing. If parents are not giving permission to marry then the boy has no choice but to capture the girl. Afterwards the elders of both families accept their marriage. Higher bride price is also one of the reason of this type of marriage. This type of rharriage prevails in the tribes of Himachal Pradesh and Chhota Nagpur.

Question 19.
Marriage by service.
Answer:
Marriage by Service. This type of marriage is also a form of marriage by purchase. Sometimes poor people are unable to give the bride price but at the same time they also want to marry. That is why boy does some work or job for the parents of the girl. After sometime parents of the girl give permission for their marriage and they establish their new house after their marriage. In Puram and Gond tribe one boy has to work at the girl’s house for three years and he fulfills all the responsibilities of the boy. Father of the girl takes care of his needs of food and living. In some tribes father of the girl gives some money as a loan to boy to pay the bride price and boy slowly gives back that money later on. This type of marriage exists in Munda, Oraon, Bouga, tribes.

Question 20.
Probationary Marriage.
Answer:
Probationary Marriage. The main aim of this type of marriage is to give chance to both boy and girl to understand each other. In this type of marriage boy goes to girl’s house for some time to live. Both boy and girl are free to talk and to meet with each other. If after some time or after probationary period, boy thinks that her nature is good enough for him then they marry with each other. If their nature do not match with each other then the boy gives some money as compensation to the father of the girl and goes back to his house. This type of marriage exists in Kuki tribe.

Question 21.
Anader or Intrusion Marriage.
Answer:
Anader or Intrusion Marriage. In this type of marriage girl takes shelter at boy’s house. If girl wants to marry any body who is not ready to marry with her, then she goes to boy’s house to live. Boy’s family members misbehave with her, she has to face very harsh behaviour. Even they beat her, sometimes do not give her food and even they keep her out of their house. But even then if she wants to marry that boy then the boy has to marry her.

Question 22.
Marriage by Mutual Consent.
Answer:
Marriage by Mutual Consent. Marriage by mutual consent exists in many tribes. Girl runs away from her house with the boy with her own wish. She never comes back to her house until her parents do not give their sanction to their marriage. This type of marriage also exists in our society.

Question 23.
Marriage by trial.
Answer:
Marriage by Trial. In this type of marriage both boy and girl are permitted to live with each othe/ at girl’s house. If they like each other then their elders perform their marriage but if they do not like each other then boy goes back to his house. But he has to give some money as compensation for his expenses during that period to the father of the girl.

Question 24.
Totem Exogamy.
Answer:
According to the rule of totem exogamy people who worship the same totem, cannot marry with each other. Meaning of totem is that people consider any plant, stone or any animal as their deity and they start to worship that deity. This type of rule exists in the Indian tribal societies where a person marries out of his totem.

Question 25.
Matrilocal Family.
Answer:
This type of family is definitely opposite to Patrilocal family in which girl never leaves her father’s house after marriage but it lives there only. In this, her husband leaves his father’s house and goes to the house of his wife to live. It is known as Matrilocal family. We can find this type of family in Garo and Khasi tribes.

Question 26.
Patrilocal Family.
Answer:
In this type of family, bride leaves her father’s house and goes to the house of her husband to live and establish the family. We can see this type of family very often.

Question 27.
Neolocal Family.
Answer:
This type of family is different from patrilocal family and matrilocal family. In this neither husband nor wife goes to their father’s house to live but they establish their new house at any other place and that’s why it is known as Neolocal family. We can find this type of family in today’s industrial society.

Question 28.
What is Patriarchal Family?
Answer:
As it is clear from the name, power or authority in this type of family is completely in the hands of father. All the functions of the family are controlled by the father. He is also the head of the family. He is being obeyed in every type of minor or major decisions. All the members of the family are under control of the father. In this way family is being run on. the name of the father. Son gets nomenclature of the father and nomenclature of the father is of great importance. We can find this type of family in modern times.

Question 29.
Matriarchal Family.
Answer:
As it is clear from the name, authority or power in the family is in the hands of mother. Relatives of the mother have more rights on the children as compared to relatives of the father. Female is known as the basic ancestor. Legal heir of the property is not the son but is the brother of the mother or son of mother’s sister. Family is run on the name of the mother. It means that children get nomenclature Of the mother. We can find this type of family in some of the tribes of India like Garo’s and Khasi’s.

Question 30.
Bride Price.
Answer:
This type of custom exists in tribal society. In this if any person wants to marry any girl then he has to pay her price to her father because they have spent a lot of money in the process of upbringing of their daughter. Bride price or value of the bride depends upon the economic and social status of the father of the girl. If one person is unable to pay the price of the bride then many persons jointly pay that price. In that case female becomes wife of all those persons.

Question 31.
The Chieftain.
Answer:
The highest position in the ancient political administration is of the chieftain. It can be ancestral or can be obtained in any other way. Sometimes this person is elected by the people. In some tribal societies two chieftains are there—first one is peace chief and second one is the war chief. Peace chief is also the head of the tribal council and who regulates the internal matters of the tribe. It also solves some of the matters related to crime. He is also elected for a limited period of time in many tribes. War chief gives direction at the time of war. This position can be given to any person who has the ability to solve the matters related to war.

Question 32.
Headman.
Answer:
The most ancient position in the political organization of tribal societies is the position of the Headman. Position of Headman is generally ancestral, respected and effective. He takes care of all the matters related to his group and gives direction on every occasion. He also directs at the time of hunting in some tribes. He solves every type of matters and his decision is respected by everyone. Sometimes he becomes despotic but generally he is a democratic administrator.

Question 33.
Tribal Council.
Answer:
The most important part of political administration in tribal societies is the council of elders. It exists in all the tribal societies because one person cannot run the administration in all the tribal societies. Even the despotic ruler needs the help of advisors. In some tribes, this council elects new headman or king after the death of the headman or king. Most of the members of tribal council are the elders of the society. All the decisions in council have been taken with majority. The most important function of the council is to give advice to the chieftain in complex matters. Council is formed on the basis of village, tribe or clan. Representative of every sub-group is generally taken in the council of clan. Other councils are also elected in this way. Council members in many tribes are elected.

Question 34.
Hunters and Food gatherer Tribes.
Answer:
Many tribes are living at the far off places in forests and mountains. Yet most of the tribes have joined the main stream due to means of transport and they also have adopted the occupation of agriculture but still many tribes are there who still spend their life as hunters and food gatherers. They collect roots, fruits, honey etc. and even are hunting smaller animals. Some tribes also exchange many things. In this way they fulfill their needs in the absence of agriculture.

Question 35.
Shifting Agriculture.
Answer:
Shifting agriculture prevails in most of the tribes. In this type of agriculture, tribal people first of all clear the forest by cutting it or keeping it on fire. Then they start cultivating the land. They get very less production due to ancient means of agriculture. When the production from that land becomes very less then they stop cultivating that land and start the same process on any other piece of land. This way of agriculture has been criticised. Tribes of Lohta, Naga, Khasi, Kuki, Saora, Korva etc. used to do this type of agriculture. Very less production is there with this way of agriculture and that’s why their condition is very pitiable.

Question 36.
Pastoralists.
Answer:
Pastoral ecopomy is one of the important parts of tribal economy. Tribal people rear animals for different purposes like to take milk, meat and wool and to carry weight. Pastoral tribes of India live a static and permanent life and are moving according to the season. Tribes of mountainous region move towards plains in the winter season and come back to their areas in summer season. The main pastoral tribe of India is the Gujjar tribe of Himachal Pradesh which rears buffaloes, cows and sheep for business purposes.

Question 37.
Artisans.
Answer:
Generally most of the tribes used to do the work of cultivation but some tribes are there who used to earn their livelihood only through this work. Many tribes used to do this work during their free time to increase their income. Tribes make things out of metal, cotton etc. to earn their livelihood. They also used to make things with bamboo. The work of artisan includes the work of carpenter, utensils, tools etc. These people are also famous to make toys of metal and glass.

Question 38.
Problems related to forests.
Answer:
Tribes generally live in forests and away from the population. They think that forests are their property. They collect things from forests to eat, are cutting wood to sell or are cutting trees to do shifting agriculture. But now laws related to forests have been made and government is giving land to contractors on contract. Contractors of forests do not allow them to cut the wood, to collect anything and even to clear the land for agriculture. In this way they are unable to meet their daily needs.

Question 39.
Reasons for changes in tribal society.
Answer:

• Changes are coming in tribal society under the effect of Christian missionaries.
• They started to move to other places by leaving their own place due to the development of means of transport and communication.
• Now their economy has been changed from subsistence economy to market economy. Now they are doing more production for market.
• Constitution has kept many provisions to uplift the tribes with which their position has been changed.
• Educational institutions has been opened in their areas due to which, these people are getting education.

Long Answer type questions:

Question 1.
Explain in brief about the five Indian tribes whose population is nine lacs or more.
Answer:
1. Mundas. Munda tribe exists generally in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Tripura, West Bengal etc. Around 62% population of Munda tribe lives in Bihar. The main occupation of this tribe is agriculture. It is known as one of the ancient tribes of the country. Little bit of education has been spread in Munda tribe because of which some of its educated members have got the governmental and non governmental jobs,. These people believe in Singbonga god. These people worship the spirits of their ancestors so that the good produce from agriculture can be taken. 19% population of the Munda tribe is educated. Yet their main language is Mundri but they also speak Hindi and the respective language of the state. Their population is around 20 lakh. ”

The main occupation of Munda tribe is agriculture and they earn their livelihood through means of agriculture. Too much illiteracy is there in it yet the 19% people of the total population are educated and some of these are doing governmental and non-governmental jobs. Some seats in government jobs are reserved for them. These people believe in religion to a great extent. They worship the Singbonga god and the spirits of their ancestors so that they could protect them from every .type of problem. ‘

2. Khonds. Khonds tribe generally exists in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal etc. In Andhra Pradesh it is known as ‘Ronds’. It is also one of the ancient tribe and it gave human sacrifice in ancient times. It is very strong from social and religious aspect. Yet they had stopped to give human sacrifice under the effect of British rule but still they believe in the world of spirits. They live a very simple life. They speak ‘Kodhi’ sub language but they know Oriya language. These people live their lives with the help of fruits and roots.’Earlier they were living a nomadic life but now they are living permanently at one place in plains and mountains. Their economic life is based upon forests. They also do agriculture but their means of agriculture are old. Type of marriage which prevails in this tribe is monogamy but some people still favour polygamy.

This tribe generally exists in the Karaput and Kalahandi district of Odisha. Their life is very simple and they live their life with the help of fruits and roots. Earlier this was a nomadic tribe but now they live permanently at different places. Because now they are living permanently at one place, that’s why they’ve started to practice agriculture to earn their livelihood. But their ways of agriculture are old and that’s why they are very hard working.

3. Gonds. The target tribe of the country is ‘Gond’ and it has been believed that this tribe belongs to the Dravid race. Their population in 1991 was 75 lakhs and this tribe generally exists in the states of Madhya pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal etc. These people live with each other at a central place. The 15% of the tribal population belongs to Gond tribe. These people depend upon agriculture and forests. Their main occupation is agriculture. These people also meet their needs by hunting, catching fish and by collecting things from forests. Education is not very common in this tribe because of which their representation in governmental and non-governmental jobs is very less. Their own religion is Gond but some of them became Christians under the effect of Britishers. These people speak ‘Gondi’ language. This tribe is a patriarchal society in which the ownership of the property is given to son after father.

They have their own laws and their own panchayat to solve their problems. These people live heavily at a central place by accepting it a central place. That’s why their population is concentrated near the areas of Narmada Valley, mountains of Satpura and plains of Nagpur. Some of the Gond people became Christians under the effect of Christian Missionaries during the British rule. Their economic life depends upon forests and agriculture. Many Gonds do agriculture but some of them have also started to do farming. These people also catch fishes, are doing hunting and are collecting fruits and roots from forests. They have their own laws and panchayats to solve their problems.

4. Bhils. Second largest tribe of India is Bhil whose population in 1981 was around 53 lakhs. This tribe lives in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra pradesh, Tripura etc. Generally this tribe exists in many districts of Western Madhya pradesh. Their language is ‘Bhili’ sub-language. Their economic life mainly depends upon agriculture. Some people also depend upon forests and collect things from forests. These people also do hunting. Their culture and religion both are ancient in nature. Religion and Magic are inseperable part of their culture. This tribe is an endogamous group in which system is maintained by the Panchayat of the tribe.

Generally many Bhils depend upon agriculture to meet their demands but some of them fulfill their needs by collecting fruits and roots from forests. They also do hunting but their means of hunting and agriculture are very old. They don’t like to get education and that’s why very few people are educated. Because of illiteracy, these poeple are being exploited by the people of main stream. Monogamy exists in this tribe but some people like to do polygamy.

5. Santhals. The third largest tribe of India is Santhal. This tribe exists in Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha. Their language is ‘Santhali’. They also speak the languages of Odisha* Bengali, Hindi etc. except Santhali language. In ancient times, these people were fulfilling their needs by hunting, catching fish and by collecting things from forests. But now they are fulfilling their needs by doing agriculture and the agriculture is the main base of their economy. Their problems have been solved by their own panchayats. The custom of bride price still exists in Santhals and females also have the right to get share in property. These people worship the sun god and even they sacrifice their animals to keep their god happy.

The meaning of .the marriage among these people is not the regulation of sexual relations or to increase family but the meaning of marriage among them is the connectivity of the families. Love marriage also exists in these families. Santhal woman also has the right to take her share in father’s property and she takes her share of property at the time of her marriage. Custom of Bride price is also there. In earlier times they were meeting their needs by collecting things and by doing hunting but with the passage of time this system has been changed. Now they are doing permanent agriculture.

6. Minas. Minas tribe exists in some parts of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Out of total population of Rajasthan, 50% belongs to Minas tribe. It is one of the main five tribes of India. It’s main occupation is agriculture. Owners of the land are different. Conjugal marriages and widow marriages exist in this tribe. This tribe thinks itself as Hindu and is taking the services of Brahmins at many occasions like birth, marriage, death etc.

The level of education is very low in this tribe and in 1981 only 14% of their population was educated. These people speak ‘Khai’ sub-language but they speak different languages in different areas. Generally conjugal marriages are there in this tribe. Widows also have the permission to remarry. They say that they belong to Hindus and are taking services of priests at many occasions. Their main occupation is agriculture. Yet the level of education is very Iqjv but some of them have got governmental jobs after getting education.

7. Oraons. Oraon tribe generally exists in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharastra, West Bengal, Orrisa. These people generally depend upon agriculture but some of them also depend upon forests. People of Oraon tribe worship Sun God. These people also believe in Magic and Mantras. Acceptance of boy and girl both is necessary for marriage. The custom of bride price also exists in this tribe. These people generally speak ‘Kurakh’ language. At the time of illness, Ojha takes care of them and Ojha also performs the functions of priest.

Question 2.
Which types of ways are there in tribal societies for acquiring mates?
Or
Discuss two forms of marriage system of the tribal society.
Or
Write the ways of acquiring mate selection system in tribal society.
Answer:
The institution of marriage prevails equally in all the societies. But the concept of marriage is very much different in Hindu society and tribal society. The aim of marriage in tribes is to enjoy sexual relations, producing children and is by living life with each other but the meaning of marriage in Hindu Society is a religious sacrament. In this way the ways to acquire mate in tribal society are also different. For example, marriage by purchase, marriage by exchange, marriage by capture, marriage by service, probationary marriage, Anader or intrusion marriage, marriage by mutual consent, marriage by trial etc. Their description is given ahead :

1. Marriage by Purchase. This type of marriage exists in many tribes. In this type of marriage, price of the bride is generally given in the form of money or in the form of agricultural produce. Though a person buys his wife in this type of marriage but it should not be considered as the means of sale and purchase. Actually a person gives the compensation to his in-laws for the upbringing of his wife. This type of marriage exists among the Santhal, Ho, Naga, Munda, Oraon tribes.

2. Marriage by Exchange. This type of marriage come into being for the reason not to give value of the bride. In many tribes the bride’s value is so high that the person is unable to pay that value. That’s why they exchange the females of their family. Person gives his sister or any female of his family in lieu of his wife. This type of marriage also exists in Hindu Society.

3. Marriage by Capture. This type of marriage also prevails in many tribal societies. During earlier times, one rule was there that parents were giving sanctions to the marriage but with the passage of time, views of children are changing. If parents do not give permission to marry then the boy has no choice except by capturing the girl. Afterwards the. elders of both families accept their marriage. Higher bride price is also one of the reason of this type of marriage. This type of marriage prevails among the tribes of Himachal Pradesh and Chhota Nagpur.

4. Marriage by Service. This type of marriage is also a form of marriage by purchase. Sometimes poor people are unable to give the bride price but at the same time they also want to marry. That is why boy does some work or job for the parents of the girl. After sometime parents of the girl give permission for their marriage and they establish their new house after their marriage. Among Puram and Gond tribes one boy has to work at the girl’s house for three years and he fulfils all the responsibilities of a son. Father of the girl takes care of his needs of food and living. Among some tribes, father of the girl gives some money as a loan to boy to pay the bride price and boy slowly gives back that money later on. This type of marriage exists among Munda, Oraon, Bonga tribes.

5. Probationary Marriage. The main aim of this type of marriage is to give chance to both boy and girl to understand each other. In this type of marriage boy goes to girl’s house for some time to live. Both boy and girl are free to talk and to meet with each other. If after some time or after probationary period, boy thinks that her nature is good enough for him then they marry with each other. If their nature does not match with each other then the boy gives some money as compensation to father of the girl and goes back to his house. This type of marriage exists in Kuki tribe.

6. Anader or Intrusion Marriage. In this type of marriage girl takes shelter at boy’s house. If girl wants to marry any body who is not ready to marry with her, then she goes to boy’s house to live. Boy’s family members misbehave with her, she needs to face very harsh behaviour. Even they beat her, sometimes do not give her food and even they keep her out of their house. But even then if she wants to marry that boy then the boy has to marry her.

7. Marriage by Mutual Consent. Marriage by mutual consent exists in many tribes. Girl elopes from her house with the boy with her own wish. She never comes back to her house until her parsents give their sanction to their marriage. This type of marriage also exists in our society.

8. Marriage by Trial. In this type of marriage both boy and girl are permitted to live with each other at girl’s house. If they like each other then their elders perform their marriage but if they do not like each other then boy goes back to his house. But he has to give some money as compensation for his expenses during that period to the father of the girl.

Question 3.
What are the main problems of Tribal societies? Suggest the ways to remove them.
Answer:
Tribal society lives away from our culture and civilization in forests, mountains, valleys etc. and it is very much out of our reach. They never interfere in any one’s matters and never like to be interfered by any one. Yet gradually they are coming near to the main stream because of which now gradually we come to know about their problems. They don’t have only one or two problems but have many problems which are given below under different headings.

1. Economic Problems. Tribal people have to face many economic problems which are given below :

1) Problem of Indebtedness. Tribal people are very simple and have certain
ignorance regarding many issues. But money lenders take advantage of their ignorance, poverty and illiteracy. Money lenders give loans to these people during their crisis time and force Jbem to pay interest and actual amount even for the whole life. They have to, pay that interest and they even are unable to pay the interest. Actual amount remains there as it is. They become poor and poorer with this.

2) Problem of Agriculture. Tribal people used to do shifting agriculture and their methods of agriculture are very old. Because of their old methods of agriculture, their production is very low. First of all they clear the forests and then they do agriculture on it. Because of low production, they are unable to earn bread of two times even after a lot of hard work. That’s why they are forced to do labour somewhere else.

3) Land Related Problems. Tribal people used to do shifting agriculture and clear forest by cutting trees. Then they prepare land for agriculture. They think that forest land is their land. But now law related to land has been made and their this right has been taken away from them. Except this they mortgage their land to money lenders and are unable to take advantage from that land.

4) Problems Related to Forests. Tribes generally live in forests and away from the population. They believe that forests are their property. They collect things from forests to eat, cut wood to sell or are cutting trees to do shifting agriculture. But now laws related to forests have been made and government is giving land to contractors on contract. Forest contractors never allow them to cut wood, to collect anything and even to clear the land for agriculture. In this way they are unable to meet their daily needs.

5) If they are doing labour then they are generally given very low wages which is a very big problem for them.

2. Social Problems. Tribal people have to face many social problems which are given below :

1) Prostitution. Tribal people are generally poor. Moneylenders, contractors etc. generally take advantage of their poverty. They give them money and establish illicit sexual relations with their females. Slowly and slowly with this, their females- are moving towards prostitution because of which their sexual problems are increasing day by day.

2) Bride price. According to ancient types of marriage, many Hindu castes were paying bride price. Now tribes are also coming under the influence of Hindu religion because of which they are also demanding bride price. With the passage of time this bride price is increasing day by day. People are unable to pay this much heavy price and now it is very difficult for them to marry their children.

3) Child marriage. Slowly and slowly, now tribes are coming under the influence of Hindu religion. Child marriages very much exist in Hindus yet these are decreasing day by day. But under the effect of Hindu religion, tribal people now marry their children in a very early age because of which many problems are coming to them.

3. Cultural problems. Tribal people now are coming in contact with other cultures and civilizations because of which they are facing many problems. These problems are given below :

1) Language problems. Now tribes are coming in contact with external cultures.
Because of their contact and interaction with other cultures they have learnt languages of other cultures. Now they speak other languages. Their younger generation hardly speaks their own language and in some tribes they have forgotten completely their own language. With the passage of time their own ideals, traditions are losing importance day by day.

2) Cultural differences. It is not necessary that all the tribal people are adopting Hindu religion. Many people are adopting Christian religion or even Buddhism. Different religions are culturally very much different from each other. Its result comes in the form of many cultural problems; With this they even are adopting caste system. Its result is that they are unable to adopt other culture and have left their own culture. With this many cultural problems are coming to them.

4. Educational Problems. Generally tribal people are poor and the main reason of their poverty is their illiteracy. Yet either under the effect of geovernmental education or under the effect of Christiaij missionaries they are getting education and even are getting English education. But with this many problems are coming to them. First is that they are leaving their basic occupations and are moving away from their cultural values. Secondly they are unable to get any job even after getting education and are becoming unemployed. In this way education is also creating problems for them.

5. Problems Related to Health. These tribal people generally live away from the population because of which their health related problems are on the rise. Sometimes if any epidemic spreads in their area then many people die due to unavailability of health facilities. Because of prostitution and illicit sexual relations, many sexual problems also spread among them. Tribal people are working in industries and many problems of industries are spreading in their areas.

No arrangement is there of hospitals, doctors, dispenseries etc. in their areas because of which very less facilities of treatment are there in their areas. Now they are using whisky, opium etc. under the effect of other cultures which also are creating many problems for them but no one is there to cure them or to take care of them.

Ways to Eradicate Problems : If any problem occurs then its solution is also there. In this way if tribal people have many problems then their solutions are also there. If we plan carefully then their problems can also be solved. Some of the solutions of their problems are given below :

• Prostitution in their areas should be stopped so that the morality should not go down. For this they should be given economic help.
• Some laws should be made for them to stop child marriages in their areas.
• Bride price should also be stopped so that the people should be able to marry their children easily and illicit relations could come to a halt.
• These people should be given land for agriculture so that they should leave shifting agriculture and should start permanent agriculture.
• They should be given the training of agriculture by giving them modern means of agriculture, to increase their production output.
• Laws related to forests should be made in such a way that they should be able to take advantage from the forests.
• Some small scale industries should be started in their areas so that they should be able to earn some money from this. They should also be given loans and grants.
• They should also be given education in their own language.
• Schools should also be opened in their areas.
• Hospitals and doctors should also be arranged in tribal areas.

Question 4.
What is Tribal Economy? Explain its nature.
Answer:
Many Sociologists have tried to divide the economic life of humans in’many parts like man as a hunter and food gatherer, pastoral stage, agricultural stage and technological stage. It has been beleived that the economic life of modern humans has been passed through these stages. Man has reached the technological stage after crossing the above mentioned stages. But if we look at the economic system of tribal society then we come to know that it is still at the earliest stage of economic life. It means that it is still in the stage of hunting, of food gathering. Each society tries to fulfil the needs of its members and the needs of the people are always increasing. But the people of tribal society have very limited economic needs. Because their economic needs are limited, that’s why they fulfill their needs from their surroundings. The main feature of tribal economy is personal hard work. It means a person has to work hard himself to fulfil his basic needs. Many sociologists have tried to define tribal economy and their views are given below :

1. According to Lucy Mayor, “Tribal economy is related with those activities with which people systematise their material and non-material atmosphere and choose some out of those uses so that the limited means could be determined to fulfil the opposite objectives.”

2. According to Pidington, “Economic system determines the right of occupation of control, system and distribution of production to fulfil basic needs of the people.”

So from these definitions it is clear that the people of tribal society fulfil their needs and acheive their economic objectives with the help of economy. We cannot understand tribal economy until we are able to understand the simple form of tribal society. All the humans and both the sexes have equal importance in tribal economy and all the persons, young one’s, females, children etc., are engaged in earning their bread. No one is burden on the other person in their economy. If the husband of a woman dies then she also takes part in thq,process of earning bread so that the life of her and her children should move on smoothly. People have very limited needs in tribal economy and they fulfill their basic needs only in their surroundings.

Nature or Features of Tribal Economy. Even though the present civilised society completely depends upon technology and has crossed a very long passage from economic point of view yet tribal economy is still in its early stage. Tribal society depends upon nature. Their main sources of living life are forests, mountains and land. Many sociologists have explained the different stages of economic life of human society. After looking at these stages we can come to know that the economic life of tribal society is still at its first stage. The main features of its nature are given below : ”

• There is lack of technology in tribal society because of which they have to do their work with their hands only. That’s why their economic needs are very limited.
• Economic relations among the people of tribes depend upon exchange of things. Money is not used widely for the exchange of goods.
• Tribal economy is not the result of efforts of one, two or many persons but is the result of efforts of whole group.
• There is no sense of profit in trade of tribal people. Partnership in trade, sense of unity and the sense of fulfillment of their needs is there in tribal economy.
• There is no regular market in their society. Wherever any weekly market prevails in their geographical area, they sell their goods in that market. There is no nature of collection of things and money and there is hardly any sense of competition in their economic system.
• Their society doesn’t have any nature of creating invention because of which they are very much under-developed. Their economic system is static which is based on fulfillment of their basic needs.
• Things, in ancient times, were not produced for sale or collection but were produced only for consumption. In the same way production in tribal society is not for sale but is only for consumption. Yet now it is changing day by day but still production in their society is mainly for consumption.
• Tribal societies don’t have any technology because of which they lack specialization based upon technological ability. Division of labour based on sex exists in their society.
• People, in tribal society, generally believe in spending instead of collecting money.

Question 5.
What are the reasons behind changes in tribal society? Explain.
Answer:
If we compare the tribes of ancient times and modern age then we shall come to know that there are many differences between the both. Tribes in ancient times were living at the far off places like forests, mountains, valleys etc. They had their own language, culture, eating habits, wearing habits etc. They were not interfering in any one’s matters and they never liked to be interfered by any one. Their ways of producing things were very old. They were doing cultivation in the traditional way, collecting fruits and roots from forests, killing the animals to fulfil their needs. In this way they were living very much near to the nature and there was no sign of education in their lives. Religion and clans were of great importance in their lives.

But if we look at the present age tribes then we can say that they are very much different from ancient tribes. Every aspect of their social life has been changed completely. They have adopted the culture of either Hindu or Christian religion and even they have adopted their ways of living life. Now they are coming out of the forests and mountains and are joining the main stream of the country. Now they are not producing only to meet their needs but are producing to sell in the market. Education is spreading in their societies. Influence of religions and clans is decreasing.

Now they are leaving their traditional occupations and are working in the industries of the urban areas. Now they are adopting new occupations. In this way a major change has come in their lives. But here one question arises that how these changes have come in their lives ? What are the reasons that they are leaving their distinctiveness and are joining the main stream of the country? Some of those reasons are given below:

1. Effect of Christian Missionaries. When the Britishers had occupied India then they gave permission to the Christian missionaries to propagate the Christian religion in the country. The Christian missionaries had propagated the Christianity in different parts of the country. Many Indians ^became Christians under their influence. These missionaries also came in contact with tribal people.

When they came in contact with different tribes then they came to know that they have their own religion and they are not under the influence of Hindu or any other Indian religion. That’s why they started to propagate Christianity in their areas. They were lured in many ways. Many facilities like educational centres, health centres etc. were provided to them. In this way tribal people started to adopt Christianity, under their influence, by leaving their own religion. They had to adopt customs and traditions of Christiaity due to this with which many changes came in their fives.

2. Development in means of Transport and Communication. When Britishers came to India they observed that the means of transport here were very old. They also had to face may problems due to this. That’s why they started to develop means of transport and communication in India. First train in India was started by them in 1853 and they also established the post and telegraph department. They also developed means of transport for their own convenience but Indians had more advantages than Britishers. People started to reach very far off place.

They also reached the tribal areas and started to persuade tribal people to join the main stream. Means of transport were developed with a great speed after independence with which tribal people started to reach other tribal people very quickly. They came out of their tribes and started to come in contact with other groups. With this many changes took place in their fives.

3. Market Economy. Their economy in ancient times was subsistence economy. Their needs were very limited and they were producing things only to fulfil their needs. They were collecting fruits and roots from forests and were killing animals to fulfil their needs. There was no tradition of surplus production in their areas. They were hardly aware of the existence of market.

But the way in which they came in contact with other groups and they started to move towards for off places with the means of transport,they came to know about the market economy. They eame to know that the surplus production can be sold into the market. After that they started to produce more with little bit of more hard work and started to sell the surplus production in the market. They started to get money with this , and their life become very easy.. In this way market economy has started to change their lives in a better way.

4. Constitutional Provisions. It is writen in the Indian Constitution that there should be no discriminiation with any one on the basis of religion, colour, caste, creed etc. With these some provisions are kept in the Constitutions that some facilities should be given to scheduled castes, tribes and weaker sections to protect their interests. These facilities include the reservation of some seats for scheduled tribes in educational institutions and governmental jobs.

The Constitution has also given a right to Governers of states that they should make one advisory council related to tribes so that some , rules related to land of tribes could be made and they could be protected from the exploitation of money lenders. Government has also been given special instructions by the Constitution for the development of tribal areas. Every Indian citizen has also been given some fundamental rights so that they could live a happy life. These rights are also given to tribal people. In this way due to these Constitutional provisions, their areas started to develop and changes came in their lives.

5. Governmental Efforts. The condition of tribal people was very bad at the time of Indian independence. That’s why many provisions were kept in the Constitution for their development. So that’s why government started to take steps for their development according to constitutional provisions. Many educational institutions, health centres, hospitals were opened in their areas so that they can get education and can use medical facilities. Social service organizations were given special aids to work in their areas. Many laws were made to protect them from exploitation of money lenders. Special steps were taken to bring them in main stream. In this way these people came in main stream due to governmental efforts and their life started to change.

6. Spread of Modern education. Special emphasis was given to spread education after independence. Many schools, colleges were opened in far off places. They were connected with universities and people were motivated to get education. Provisions were made to reserve seats for the tribals in educational institutions and jobs. Social service institutions are motivating them to get education. In this way due to the efforts of the whole society, they started to get education.

Generally these people take education upto midle level. But those people, who have been able to get higher education, have got governmental jobs due to reservation. They started to get a proper income due to these jobs and their standard of life became high. Their social status becomes higher. Other tribal people also started to get education after looking their higher status. In this way their life started to change due to spread of education.

7. Decreasing Forests. Life of tribal people has also been changed due to reducing area of forests. Economy of tribal people, in earlier times, was based on forests. They were living in forests, cultivating in forests, collecting fruits and roots from forests and were hunting in forests. In this way their whole economic life was dependent upon forests. But population started to increase with the passage of time. Increasing population started a problem of living for them.

Forests were cut down to make houses for the people. Forests started to be reduced to a great extent. Their means of livelihood came to an end. That’s why these people started to come to urban areas in search of work for earning. They started to leave their traditional occupations and started to adopt new occupations with which their life started to change. With this government started to give forests to contractors. Tribal people were cutting wood from the forests and were selling that wood in the market. They were forced not to cut wood by these contractors. So that’s why they started to adopt new occupations instead of their traditional occupations.

In this way we can see that many changes came in the life of tribal people due to many factors like the effect of Christian missionaries, efforts of the government, the constitutional provisions, spread of education etc.