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Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 10 Democracy at Grassroots Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 10 Democracy at Grassroots

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Describe the structure of Panchayati Raj System in India.
Or
Discuss the composition and functions of the three tiers of the Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:
Late Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India, in the course of his speech at Rajpura in Punjab on December 4, 1960 said that three revolutions are at root in the whole of the country

More and more education
Use of new tools and methods of Agriculture and
Establishment of Panchayati Raj.

He said that Panchayati Raj is being established in the villages. The people will themselves make efforts to develop the villages and they will run the local administration themselves. In Dec, 1992 two houses of Parliament approved the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Bill which is considered as a landmark legislation in the process of decentralisation of power to the grassroot levels. A new part IX relating to Panchayats has been added in the Constitution of India by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act.

India is a land of villages and 70 per cent of population lives in the villages. It was but natural that government should pay more attention to the development of villages after Independence. Article 40 of the Constitution reads, “The state shall take steps to organise Village Panchayats and endow them to function as units of self government.” In 1952 the government started Community Development Projects and made plans for the development of villages.

In 1957 Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was set up to review the Community Development Programme. Mehta Committee recommended for a three-tier local self-government system in India to ensure decentralisation of power. The Panchayati Raj scheme was introduced first by Rajasthan on October 2, 1959. Then it was adopted by Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Assam, Punjab, U.P. etc. At present Panchayati Raj system has been adopted almost in all the states.

What is Panchayati Raj?
Panchayati Raj may be described as a complex system of rural local self-government in India. Panchayati Raj is that system of administration in which the village people are given the right to manage their own local affairs and to satisfy their needs themselves. The villagers use their right through the Village Panchayats and it is called Panchayati Raj.

Structure of Panchayati Raj:
The Panchayati Raj system as recommended by Balwant Rai Mehta Committee has been organised on a three-tier structure Gram
Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the Block level and Zila Parishad at the district level. But there are some states where Panchayati Raj is organised on a two-tier basis. These states are: Tripura, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Sikkim.

1. Panchayats:
Panchayats have been established in the villages. In Punjab a village with a population of 200 or more than this can have a panchayat of its own. If the population of a village is less than 200 it can have a common Panchayat with some other village. All the adults of a village are the members of Gram Sabha. Gram Sabha elects members of the Panchayat. According to Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994, every Gram Panchayat consists of 5 to 13 Panches and one Sarpanch.

The membership of a Panchayat is fixed on the basis of the population of the village. The Village Panchayat runs the village administration and tries to improve the lot of the villages. Its main function is to make all out efforts for the overall development of village life. The Gram Sabha meets at least once in six months and the Village Panchayat presents to it a report of its functions and it also gets its future programme approved by the Gram Sabha. The Village Panchayat is responsible for all its actions and policies to the Gram Sabha.

2. Panchayat Samiti:
In 1952 Development Blocks were made and each Block was placed under a Block Development Officer. In Panchayati Raj each Block has a Block Samiti known as Panchayat Samiti. According to Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994, every Panchayat Samiti consists of 6 to 10 members. In Punjab 60 percent of the total seats of Panchayat Samities are indirectly elected from the electoral colleges of Sarpanches. 40 percent of the total seats are directly elected. Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women are given special representation.

The members of the Legislative Assembly, Legislative Council and Lok Sabha elected from the Block are the associate members of Panchayat Samiti. The Sub-Divisional Magistrate and the Block Development Officer are the coopted members of the Samiti. The term of Panchayat Samiti is five years. The Panchayat Samities are expected to help in the execution of development programmes, encourage agriculture and small-scale industry. The Block Development Officer is the executive officer of the Panchayat Samiti. He executes the decisions and orders of the Samiti. The Panchayat Samiti looks after the working of Panchayats and gives them every possible assistance whenever required.

3. Zila Parishad:
Zila Parishad is the third and highest tier of Panchayati Raj. A Zila Parishad has been established in each district. The members of Zila Parishad are directly elected by the people and some are elected by the Panchayat Samities and President of each Panchayati Samiti is the member of Zila Parishad. MPs, MLAs and MLCs of the district are also its members. Certain seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women candidates.

According to Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994, every Zila Parishad consists of 10 to 25 members. The membership of a Zila Parishad is fixed on the basis of the population of the Zila Parishad area. Representatives of co-operative societies and municipalities of the district are also its members. The Zila Parishad looks after the working of Panchayat Samities and co-ordinates their working. It makes efforts for the development of the whole district.

Question 2.
What changes have been made in Panchayati Raj System under 73rd Constitutional Amendment?
Answer:
The Seventy-third amendment passed by the Parliament in December 1992 constitutes a major milestone in the history of rural local government in India. Seventy-third amendment became operative from 24 April 1993. In the Constitution, Part-IX and Schedule XI have been inserted which contains certain provisions for Panchayat bodies at village, intermediate and district level. Some of the important provisions contained in the Act are:

1. Constitutional Sanction to democracy at the grass-root level:
The 73rd Amendment Act has sought to provide constitutional Sanction to democracy at the grassroot level by inscribing in the Constitution a new part and a new schedule relating to Panchayats in the Constitution. Before the passage of this act, the Panchayats in India did not enjoy constitutional sanction.

2. Definition of Gram Sabha:
The 73rd Amendment Act provides the definition of Gram Sabha. According to it “Gram Sabha means body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls relating to a village comprised within the area of Panchayat at the village level.”

3. Definition of Panchayat:
According to 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, Panchayat means an institution of self-government constituted by the government for the rural area.

4. Constitution of Panchayati Raj Institutions:
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act provides that the state government shall consitute Panchayati Raj institutions in its territory as under:

• A village Panchayat in every village at village level in rural area.
• Panchayat Samiti at the intermediate (Tehsil or Development Block) level.
• A Zila Parishad at the district level.

5. Direct Election of the Members:
According to 73rd Amendment, all members of the Gram Panchayat are directly elected by the voters of the Gram Sabha. For this purpose the territorial area of each Gram Panchayat is divided into territorial constituencies—and one member is elected from each constituency. Minimum age of members of Panchayat is fixed at 21.

6. Reservation of Seats:
(i) According to 73rd Amendment Act, seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes in proportion to their population in the Gram Panchayat. Not less than one-third of the total number of the elected seats reserved for the Scheduled Castes shall be reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes.

(ii) One seat is reserved for Backward Classes in a Gram Panchayat where population of Backward Classes in the Gram Sabha area is more than twenty per cent of the total population of the Gram Sabha area.

(iii) Not less than one-third (including the number of elected seats reserved for women belonging to the scheduled castes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Gram Panchayat shall be reserved for women. .

7. Tenure of Panchayat:
According to 73rd Amendment Act, the tenure of Panchayats in all the states is 5 years. If a Panchayat is dissolved or superseded before the expiry of its tenure, it is obligatory to hold election within six months. Next elections of the Panchayat must be held before its term is over.

8. Powers and Functions of the Panchayati Raj Institutions:
According to 73rd amendment the state governments shall give the Panchayats powers and functions relating to subjects mentioned in the 12th Schedule.

9. Sources of Income of Panchayats:
The 73rd Amendment Act provides for the evolution of resources to local bodies and also empowers them to raise some resources of their own. Panchayats may be empowered by the State legislature to impose taxes and fees and duties and may be assigned a share in state government taxes and grants-in-aid.

10. State Election Commission:
For the supervision, superintendence and control of election staff of Panchayati Raj instittions, provision for the establishment of independent election commission at the state level has been made. The State Election Commission shall be appointed by the Governor and can be removed only in the manner prescribed for the Judge of the High Court.

11. Finance Commission:
According to 73rd Amendment Act, the Governor of a state shall appoint Finance Commission to review the financial position of the Panchayats and to make recommendation to the governor to improve the financial position of the Panchayats. The Finance Commission shall make recommendations for distribution of income of the state between the government and the municipalities and Panchayati Raj Institutions.

12. District Planning Committee:
The 73rd Amendment provides for the constitution of a District Planning Committee. District Planning Committee is responsible for the consolidated development plan for the district on the basis of development plans of municipalities and Panchayati Raj institutions of the district.

13. Audit of Accounts of Panchayats:
The Legislature of a state may by law, make provision with respect to the maintenance of accounts by the Panchayats and the auditing of such accounts.

14. Metropolitan Planning Committee:
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act also provides for the constitution of Metropolitan Planning Committee for making development plan for a metropolitan area consisting of two or more municipalities and Panchayati Raj institutions.

15. Election Petitions:
The 73rd amendment has provided that the state legislature shall make law for the hearing of election petition pertaining to the election of municipalities and Panchayati Raj institutions.

16. Part not to apply to Certain Area:
Nothing in this part shall apply to scheduled areas referred to in clause

• and the tribal areas referred to in Clause
• of Article 244.

17. Bar to interference by Court in Electoral Matters:
The 73rd Amendment Act puts a bar to interference by courts in electoral matters of Panchayats. According to 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act the state government will have to amend their existing Panchayat acts accordingly. All the state governments have enacted the fresh Panchayat legislations.

The Panchayati Raj, today, is functioning in all the states though there are inevitable variations from state to state. Following states have a three-tier structure- Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Assam, Haryana, Manipur, Orissa, and Kerala have a three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj while Jammu-Kashmir, Sikkim, Tripura and Goa have only one-tier. The northeastern states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland have each a traditional council of village elders and thus he outside the network of modern Panchyati Raj institutions.

Conclusion:
New Panachayati Raj system as introduced by the 73rd Constitutional Amendement Act is a historical development in the Indian Political System. The most distinctive feature of the new system is that an election to constitute a Panchayat has to be completed before the expiry of its normal tenure of five years.

Question 3.
Write a note on Gram Sabha.
Answer:
The Gram Sabha is the general body consisting of all the voters residing in the jurisdiction of Gram Panchayat which extends over one village or a group of villages. In some states the Gram Sabha is a statutory body while in some others it is a non-statutory body.

Office bearers:
The Gram Sabha elects a Gram Pradhan for five years. He is also the Pradhan or Sarpanch of the Gram Panchayat. The Gram Sabha also elects executive council known as Gram Panchayat.

Meetings:
The Gram Sabha meets at least twice a year. One meeting is held in December after the harvesting of the Sawni crop and the second meeting is held in June after the Harhi Crop. The Gram Pradhan has a right to call special meetings of the Gram Sabha. Quorum of the Gram Sabha meeting is one-fifth of the total members of the Gram Sabha.

Functions of Gram Sabha:
Following are the main functions of the Gram Sabha:

• The Gram Sabha decides the broad policies for the development of the village.
• The Gram Sabha approves the annual budget of the village and it deliberates on the taxes proposed by the Gram Panchayat and votes on impositions of taxes or tolls.
• The Gram Sabha considers the audit report of the Gram Panchayat and also considers administrative report of the Gram Panchayat.
• The Gram Sabha elects the Pradhan and the Panches of the Panchayat.
• The Gram Sabha can remove the Pradhan and Panches of the Panchayat by passing a resolution by two-thirds majority.
• The Gram Sabha promotes programme of adult education and family welfare within the village.
• The Gram Sabha promotes unity and harmony among all sections of society in the village.

The Gram Sabha is supposed to work as a watchdog of the Gram Panchayat. But in practice it is not functioning effectively and it also does not meet regularly. People show little or no interest in attending the meetings of the Gram Sabha. The microscopic minority dominates the show when Gram Sabha meetings are held. Iqbal Narain and P.C. Mathur observed that the Gram Sabha is yet to emerge as a forum of constructive criticism of the working of the Panchayati Raj institutions. Diwakar Committee has suggested that the Gram Sabha will have to be gradually brought into the picture by assigning to it a definite status.

Question 4.
Describe the composition and functions of Gram Panchayat.
Or
Write down the powers and functions of the Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
The Village Panchayat is the main institution for running the administration of local affairs of the village. At present more than 2,50,000 Village Panchayats are working in India. In the past also the Panchayats were attached great importance. The village administration was run by these Panchayats. The Panchayats peformed their functions efficiently even in small villages. With the advent of the Britishers the Panchayats got a big setback. After 1880, the British rule in India made efforts to revive the local self-government system.

It was only in cities that local selfgovernment institutions were established. After Independence our Government paid special attention towards this end. Eighty per cent of India lives in the villages and if the condition of the villages does not improve, the country cannot make any progress. Mahatma Gandhi stressed the need of establishment of Panchayats and of giving more powers to them. In 1952, the Punjab government established Panchayats in all the villages by passing a law to this effect. Steps were taken to establish Panchayats in other States also. At present there are more than two lakh and fifty thousand Panchayats in India.

Composition:
In Punjab Panchayats have been established in all the villages whose population is two hundred or more than this. If the population of a village is less than 200 then a joint Panchayat of two villages is established. The size of the membership of the Gram Panchayat varies from 5 to 31. In Haryana membership of the Panchayat is between 6 and 20 while in Punjab it is between 5 and 13. The membership of a Panchayat is fixed on the basis of the population of the village. In Punjab every Gram Sabha elects a Sarpanch and such number of Panches is as indicated below against each slab of population-

S. No.	Population	No of Panches
1.	For population exceeding 200 but not exceeding 1,000	Five
2.	For population exceeding 1,000 but not exceeding 2,000	Seven
3.	For population exceeding 2,000 but not exceeding 5,000	Nine
4.	For population exceeding 5,000 but not exceeding 10,000	Eleven
5.	For population exceeding 10,000	Thirteen

According to Punjab Panchayati Act 1994, seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes in proportion to their population in the Gram Panchayat.Reservation of Seats:

• One seat is reserved for Backward Classes in a Gram Panchayat where population of Backward Classes in the Gram Sabha area is more than twenty per cent of the total population of the Gram Sabha area.
• In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women in Gram Panchayat.

Election:
The members of the Gram Panchayat are elected by the members of the Gram Sabha directly by secret ballot. Every adult who is a resident of the village has got the right to vote in the Panchayat elections. Any voter who is 21 years of age or more can contest the election and become a member of the Village Panchayat.

Tenure:
Before 73rd Amendment the tenure of Panchayat in all the states was not uniform. Usually the members of a Panchayat were elected for a five year term. But according to 73rd Amendment the tenure of Panchayat in all states is five years. If a Panchayat does not perform its functions properly, the Director of Panchayat can dissolve it. But election to the dissolved Panchayat must be held within six months.

Chairman:
There is the head of the Panchayat who is called the Sarpanch. Other members of the Panchayat are called the Panches. In Punjab Sarpanch is elected directly by the voters. Offices of Sarpanches of Gram Panchayat in the district are reserved for Scheduled Castes in proportion to the population of Scheduled Castes to the total population of the district.

Not less than one-third of the offices of Sarpanches of Gram Panchayat belonging to the Scheduled Castes shall be reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Caste. Not less than one third of the total number of offices of Sarpanches in the district shall be reserved for women including the seats reserved for women belonging to Scheduled Castes. The offices of Sarpanches reserved shall be allotted by rotation to the different Gram Panchayats in such a manner as may be prescribed. The tenure of the office of the Sarpanch co-terminates with the term of the Gram Panchayat.

Functions of the Sarpanch: Following are the main functions of the Sarpanch:

• The Sarpanch is responsible for convening the meetings of the Gram Sabha and presides over its meetings.
• The Sarpanch is responsible for convening the meetings of the Gram Panchayat and presides over its meetings.
• The Sarpanch is responsible for the maintenance of the records of the Gram Panchayat.
• The Sarpanch has the general responsibility for the financial and executive administration of the Gram Panchayat.
• The Sarpanch exercises administrative supervision and control over the work of the staff of the Gram Panchayat.

Quorum: The majority of the members of Gram Panchayat constitute the quorum for the meetings.

Procedure of Taking Decision: All the decisions of the Panchayat are taken by an ordinary majority. The Sarpanch has got the right to exercise a casting vote.
Meetings: The Panchayat must hold its meetings at least once a month and the Sarpanch presides over the meeting of the Panchayat.

Powers and Functions of the Village Panchayat:
Following are the main functions of the Village Panchayat-

• Administrative Functions.
• It maintains peace and order in the village.
• It helps the police in the prevention of crimes and in the arrest of criminals.
• It can oppose the sale of wine in its jurisdiction by passing a resolution by 2/3 majority.
• It keeps a watch on the work of the government officials in the village. The Village Panchayat can lodge a complaint to the Deputy Commissioner against the Patwari, Lambardar and Chowkidar if they do not perform their duties properly.

2. Functions of Public Welfare:

1. It makes sanitary arrangements in the village.
2. It makes efforts for improving the health of the people, and for this purpose it opens hospitals and dispensaries. It also establishes child welfare and maternity centres.
3. It makes arrangements for giving small pox and cholera injections to the people.
4. It makes arrangements for pure drinking water and for pouring medicine in the wells, tanks etc.
5. It makes arrangement for street and road light.
6. It also makes arrangements for providing primary education to the children.
7. It opens libraries and reading rooms in the village.
8. It looks after the public places and makes arrangements for their sanitation.
9. It makes arrangements for cremation and burial grounds.
10. It gets trees planted and looks after them.
11. It tries for the promotion of animal husbandry.
12. It is also the duty of the Panchayat to work for the promotion of agriculture. It makes arrangements for good seeds and acquaints the villagers with improved and scientific methods of agriculture.
13. It tries for the development of cottage industry so that unemployed villagers get employment.
14. It tries to improve the social life of the people by eradicating social evils in society.
15. It helps people economically in case of floods, famine and drought.
16. It makes arrangements for fairs, exhibitions, wrestling matches and kabaddi matches for providing recreation to the people.
17. It constructs and maintains streets, roads and bridges in the village.
18. It formulates and implements development programmes of the village.
19. It works for the welfare of the backward sections of the village communities, especially the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.

3. Judicial Powers:
It decides minor civil and criminal cases within its areas. Now the villagers need not go to the tehsil or the District headquarters to get their disputes decided. In criminal sphere the Panchayats can hear petty cases involving mischief, assault, theft of property etc. on payment of prescribed fee. These fees are of a nominal nature. They can hear civil cases of the value of 200 rupees. They can impose a fine upto Rs. 200.

One thing is to be noted that the lawyers cannot appear before the Panchayats. Both the parties are to appear before the Panchayat to plead their case. In criminal cases the Panchayat can only impose a fine and it cannot sentence anybody to imprisonment. It can impose a fine up to Rs. 25 upon those who defy its orders. Normally the decisions of the Panchayats are final but an appeal can be made to the court of District Magistrate with its prior sanction.

Sources of Income:
The Panchayat needs money for the performance of its functions. It gets this amount from the following sources:

1. It gets 10 per cent of the total revenue collected from the village.
2. It imposes house tax.
3. Anybody who approaches the Panchayat for deciding a case is to pay a nominal fee. This fee is to be given in cash.
4. It imposes fines on the criminals and keeps that amount with it.
5. It gets profit from the sale of fertilizers.
6. It imposes tax on animals, vehicles, profession etc.
7. Income from water, if provided.
8. Fees for use of rest houses.
9. Drainage fee.
10. It can get subscription from villagers for performing some important duty.
11. It imposes tax on village fairs, markets and exhibitions.
12. The Panchayats are given financial aid by the government annually.
13. The Panchayats issue various types of licences and get a fee for the same.
14. It takes money by selling the skin of dead animals.

Question 5.
Describe the composition, powers and functions of the Panchayat Samiti or Block Samiti.
Or
Discuss the composition, functions and powers of the Panchayat Samiti.
Answer:
The intermediate tier in the Panchayati Raj System is known in several states as the Panchayat Samiti. In Madhya Pradesh it is known as Janapad Panchayat while in Gujarat it is known as Taluka Panchayat. In a majority of states, its jurisdiction is co-extensive with the block while in some states it is co-extensive with that of Taluka.

Composition of Panchayat Samiti:
A Panchayat Samiti consists of the following four types of members:
1. Elected or Primary Members. In Punjab every Panchayat Samiti consists of six to ten directly elected members.

2. Representatives of the Sarpanches are directly elected from amongst the Sarpanches of the Gram Panchayats in the Panchayat Samiti area provided that ratio of the representatives of the Sarpanches and that of the directly elected members shall be sixty: forty.

3. Members of the Legislative Assembly State of Punjab, major portion of whose constituency falls in the Panchayat Samiti area.

4. Members of the Legislative Council of the State of Punjab, who are registered as electors within the Panchayat Samiti area.

Right to Vote:
The members of the Panchayat Samiti whether or not chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the Panchayat Samiti shall have the right to vote in the meetings of the Panchayat Samiti except for election and removal of its Chairman or Vice-Chairman.

Reservation of Seats:
According to Punjab Panchayat Raj Act 1994, in every Panchayat, seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes, women and the Backward Classes. In every Panchayat Samiti seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes in proportion to their population in Panchayat Samiti area. One-third of the total number of the seats reserved for Scheduled Castes are reserved for the women of the Scheduled Castes. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women in Panchayat Samiti. One seat is reserved for Backward Classes in a Panchayat Samiti in which the population of Backward Classes is not less than twenty percent of the total population of the Panchayat Samiti area.

Tenure:
Before 73rd Amendment the tenure of the Panchayat Samiti was fixed by the State government and it was not the same in all the States. But 73rd Amendment has fixed the tenure of the Samiti 5 years for all the states. In Punjab tenure of Panchayat Samiti is five years.

Chairman:
The members of the Panchayat Samiti elect a Chairman and Vice-Chairman from amongst the elected members. He presides over the meetings of the Samiti. The Chairman discharges all duties imposed and exercises all the powers conferred on him under the Act. The Chairman exercises supervision and control over the executive officer of the Panchayat Samiti for securing implementation of the decision of the Panchayat Samiti. The Chairman exercises over all supervision over the financial and executive administration of the Panchayat Samiti.

Meetings:
A Panchayat Samiti must hold a meeting atleast once in two months. One-third of the members of Panchayat Samiti may make a written request to the Chairman for calling a special meeting of the Panchayat Samiti. The Chairman shall have to convene special meeting of the Panchayat Samiti.

Quorum:
The majority of the total members of Panchayat Samiti constitute a quorum for the meeting of the Panchayat Samiti.

Executive Officer:
The Block Development Officer is the Executive Officer of the Panchayat Samiti. He runs the day-to-day administration of the Samiti. Besides this, there is a Panchayat Officer also. The Executive Officer and the Panchayat Officer work in co-operation with each other.

Powers and Functions
The Panchayat Samiti performs the following functions:
1. The Panchayat Samiti looks after the working of Panchayats in its area.

2. It tries to promote agriculture in its area and distribute among the farmers good seeds, fertilizers and scientific instruments. It makes propaganda of scientific methods of agriculture among the farmers. It advances loans to the farmers for the promotion of agricultural production. It tries to make better arrangements of irrigation in its area.

3. It tries to promote cottage industries in its area.

4. It takes steps for the promotion of animal husbandry.

5. It makes sanitary arrangement in its area. It takes steps for improving the health of the people. It opens hospitals, child welfare centres and maternity centres.

6. It makes arrangements for getting the people injected against various diseases. It also takes steps for the prevention of diseases.

7. It makes efforts to protect crops from rats, locusts and other insects.

8. It constructs and maintains roads and bridges in its area.

9. It extends co-operation to the Co-operative Societies in its area.

10. It makes arrangements for village fairs, exhibitions and markets.

11. It also attends to the promotion of education in its area and it opens reading- rooms and libraries in its area.

12. It starts Community Development Projects and makes every possible effort for the development of the area.

13. It tries to give relief to the people in case of famine, drought and floods in its area.

14. It maintains a record of births and deaths in its area.

15. It maintains and looks after the government’s property.

16. It can acquire property in the interest of public welfare.

17. It maintains playgrounds and gardens.

18. Panchayat Samiti promotes social welfare programme including welfare of handicapped, mentally retarded and destitutes.

19. Panchayat Samiti promotes programmes relating to development of women and children.

20. Panchayat Samiti promotes the welfare of Scheduled Castes, Backward Classes and other weaker sections of society. Panchayat Samiti also protects Scheduled Castes and Backward Classes and other weaker sections from social injustice and exploitation.

21. Panchayat Samiti is responsible for the public distribution system of essential commodities.

22. Panchayat Samiti promotes social education through Youth Clubs and Mahila Mandals.

23. Panchayat Samiti promotes rural electrification including distribution of electricity.

24. Panchayat Samiti promotes co-operative activities.

Source of Income or Panchayat Samiti Fund:
Panchayat Samiti Fund is created for every Panchayat Samiti and following items are placed in this fund-

1. All proceeds of local rate allocated to the Panchayat Samiti by the State Government.
2. The proceeds of all taxes, cesses, duties and fees imposed by the Panchayat Samiti under this Act.
3. All funds allocated to the Panchayat Samiti and income arising from all sources of income placed at its disposal.
4. All rents and profits accruing from property vested in or managed by the Panchayat Samiti.
5. All sums contributed to the Fund by the Central Government or any State Government or by any local authority including Gram Panchayat or any private person.
6. All sums received by the Panchayat Samiti in the discharge of functions exercised by it under this Act.
7. All sums paid by the State Government or Central Government for the implementation of Community
8. Development Programmes.
9. All sums paid by the State Government to the Panchayat Samiti to meet expenses for the performance of agency functions.
10. The proceeds of all sources of income which the State Government may order to be placed at the authority of the Panchayat Samiti.

Question 6.
Discuss the composition, functions and financial resources of Zila Parishad.
Or
How is the Zila Parishad organised? Discuss its functions.
Answer:
Zila Parishad is at the apex of the Panchayati Raj System. Zila Parishad is established at the district level. It is known by different names. In Assam it is known as Mahakuma Parishad. In Tamil Nadu and Karnataka it is known as the District Development Council and in Gujarat as the District Panchayat.

Composition:
Zila Parishad comprises the following categories of members:

1. The members are directly elected from territorial constituencies in the district, each constituency electing one member. Directly elected members are between 10 and 25.
2. All Chairmen of Panchayat Samities.
3. The members of the Lok Sabha and members of the Legislative Assembly of the district.
4. Those members of the Rajya Sabha who are registered as voters within the district.

All members of a Zila Parishad whether elected or not from territorial constituencies in the Zila Parishad area enjoy right to vote in the meetings of the Zila Parishad except in the election of its Chairman and Vice-Chairman.

Reservation of Seats:
In every Zila Parishad seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Backward Classes and women. Seats reserved for Scheduled Castes are in the some proportion to the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in that Zila Parishad as the population of the Scheduled Castes in the district bears to the total population in the district. In Punjab, 50% seats are reserved for women in Zila Parishad. One seat is reserved for backward classes in a Zila Parishad in which the population of backward classes is not less than 20 percent of the total population of the district.

Tenure:
Before 73rd Amendment, tenure of Zila Parishad was not the same in all the states. In the majority of the states the tenure of Zila Parishad was five years. In Assam, Karnataka and West Bengal it was four years while in Bihar it was three years. But 73rd Amendment has fixed the tenure of 5 years in all the states. If it is dissolved before the expiry of this term elections must be held within six months. The government can dissolve the Zila Parishad at any time.

Chairman and Vice-Chairman:
Directly elected members of the Zila Parishad and Chairman of the Panchayat Samities of the district elect the Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the Zila Parishad from amongst the elected members.

Reservation for the office of Chairman and Vice-Chairman:
The Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 provides for the reservation of seats for the offices of Chairman and Vice-Chairman of Zila Parishad, for the persons belonging to the Scheduled Castes. The number of such offices should be in the same proportion to the total number of offices in the State of Punjab as the population of the Scheduled Castes in the state bears to the total population of the State.

Not less than one-third of the total number of offices of the Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the Zila Parishad are reserved for women.
Tenure of the Chairman and Vice-Chairman. The tenure of the Chairman and Vice-Chairman shall be co-terminus with that of Zila Parishad. However, the elected members of the Zila Parishad can remove the Chairman and Vice-Chairman by two-third majority.

Powers and Functions of Chairman:
The Chairman convenes, presides and conducts the meetings of the Zila Parishad. The Chairman exercises administrative supervision and controls over the Chief executive officer and through him all officers and other employees of the Zila Parishad. He exercises full supervision over the financial administration of Zila Parishad.

Secretary:
Each Zila Parishad has a Secretary who runs the day-to-day administration of the Zila Parishad. He is paid his salary every month. The government makes appointment of the Secretary on the recommendations of the Zila Parishad.

Meetings:
The meetings of the Zila Parishad must be held at least four times in a year. The quorum for holding the meetings of Zila Parishad has been fixed as the presence of l/3rd members of its total membership.

Functions of The Zila Parishad
Following are the functions and powers of the Zila Parishad-

1. Zila Parishad tries to promote agricultural production and it opens and maintains agricultural seed farms and commercial farms.
2. It establishes and maintains godowns and gives training to farmers.
3. Zila Parishad takes steps for development of irrigation and for this purpose it constructs, renovates and maintains minor irrigation works and lift irrigation.
4. Zila Parishad establishes veterinary hospitals and dispensaries; poultry farms, duck farms and goat farms; common cold storage facility for dairy, poultry and fishery products.
5. It tries to co-ordinate the working of Panchayats and Panchayat Samities in the district.
6. The Panchayat Samities pass their annual budget and send it to the Zila Parishad. The Zila Parishad gives its approval to the budget after considering it thoroughly.
7. It keeps a watch on the working of Panchayat Samities in its area.
8. If a Panchayat Samiti does not perform its functions properly, the Zila Parishad can assist it in the performance of its duties.
9. It makes efforts to improve the living standard of the village life. It also tries for the development of village life.
10. It can give suggestions to the government regarding the development of villages.
11. If two or more than two villages have common project, the Zila Parishad tries to co-ordinate their working and helps in making the plana success.
12. The government can shift responsibility of making any plan or project a success on the Zila Parishad.
13. The Zila Parishad with the approval of the government can collect money from the Panchayat Samities.
14. The Zila Parishad can advise the government on the issues of distribution of powers and co-ordination of work among the Panchayat Samities.
15. The Zila Parishad adopts measures to increase agricultural production.
16. The Zila Parishad do construction, renovation and maintenance of minor irrigation works and lift irrigation.
17. The Zila Parishad promotes educational activities, Social Welfare activities and works for the welfare of weaker sections of society.
18. Zila Parishad is responsible for the construction and maintenance of roads other than national and state highways; identification of major link roads connecting markets, educational institutions, health centres and link roads.
19. Zila Parishad is responsible for planning, supervision, monitoring and implementation of-poverty alleviation programmes.
20. Zila Parishad maintains Social Welfare Institutions such as Poor Home Orphanages, Rescue Shelters and the like.
21. Zila Parishad encourages community marriages and inter-caste marriages; identifies free and rehabilitates bonded labour; organises cultural and recreational activities; encourages sports and games and construction of stadium.

Sources of Income:
For every Zila Parishad, Zila Parishad Fund is constituted and fallowing items are included in this fund:

1. Contribution and grants, if any, made by the Central government or by the state government including such part of land revenue collected in the state as may be determined by the state government.
2. Contributions and grants, if any made by a Panchayat Samiti or any other local authority.
3. Loans if any granted by Zila Parishad on security of its assets.
4. The proceeds of road tax and public work tax levied in the district.
5. All receipts on account of taxes, tolls, rates, cess and fee imposed by the Zila Parishad.
6. All receipts in respect of any schools, hospitals, dispensaries, buildings, institutions or works vested in, constructed by or placed under the control and management of the Zila Parishad.
7. The total amount received as gift or contribution and all income from any trust or endowment made in favour of Zila Parishad.
8. Fine and penalties imposed and realized under the provisions of this Act.

Question 7.
Explain the problems of Panchayati Raj.
Or
Explain any six problems of Panchayati Raj.
Answer:
In 1952 Village Panchayats were established and municipal committees were given more powers. Afterwards Panchayati Raj was introduced in the villages. But after so many years of the establishment of Panchayati Raj, it has not been successful in achieving its objectives. The Panchayati Raj System suffers from various defects which are given as follows:

1. Illiteracy:
The majority of the villagers are uneducated and most of the members of a village Panchayats are also uneducated. The Sarpanches of most of the Panchayats are also uneducated and they do not know even how to put their signatures. The people also do not take interest in the working of the Panchayat. As a result of all this incompetent and uneducated people are elected as the members of the Panchayat. No local self-government institution can be a success unless both the electors and the elected are educated.

2. Ignorance:
As majority of the villagers are illiterate, they are ignorant about the aims of the Panchayati Raj. Only one-fifth of the men who run these institutions are aware that the ultimate goal of Panchayati Raj is to make the rural masses more self-reliant. Unfortunately, one-eighth of the rural leadership is conscious that one of the goals of Panchayati Raj is to improve the lot of weaker sections.

3. Communalism:
The villagers have developed the evil spirit of communalism. The villagers not only believe in communalism but they also practise it. During elections to the Village Panchayat, the people are always divided on the basis of religion and caste. The village society is very much caste-ridden and they always vote on the basis of caste. Even after the elections the caste system always remains at the forefront. The Panchayat always remains a divided house and all its decisions are made on the basis of caste of the contending parties. The members of the Panchayat cannot work as a team because each one of them is caste conscious.

4. Groupism:
The people form their groups on the eve of Panchayat elections. The whole mass of the villagers is faction-ridden. The elections of the Panchayats are contested by the people on the basis of their affiliations to political parties. The political parties should have no place in Panchayat elections. People in the village form groups and factions on the basis of caste, religion and creed. As a result of all this, the Panchayats and the municipal committee cannot function successfully.

5. Excessive control of the Government:
The Government exercises a greater degree of control in the working of Panchayats and Municipal Committees. It can interfere in the working of these institutions any time it likes. As a result of this these institutions feel discouraged. The government can reject the resolutions passed by these institutions. It also controls the budget of these institutions. These institutions do not develop the spirit of responsibility because of undue interference in their working by the government. These elected representatives of the institutions always remain at the mercy of the government officials.

6. Want of funds:
These institutions do not have enough funds to meet its needs. Their sources of income are rather very poor and the heads of expenditure are many. This imbalance usually hampers progress. Many of the vital programmes cannot be executed for want of funds. In some cases for their very existence these bodies are to depend on the local government. It is, therefore, essential that efforts should be made to provide more funds to these bodies.

7. Poverty:
The people of India are very poor. The villagers suffer from the social evil of poverty to a very great degree. People cannot pay excessive taxes due to poverty and, therefore, the Panchayats cannot increase their income by imposing more taxes on the people. The poor people are always worried about making their both ends meet and they cannot afford to think about the problems of the village, city and the country. That is why the people do not take interest in their local problems.

8. Urbanisation;
Urbanisation is another problem confronting Panchayati Raj. There is tendency among the educated people to migrate from villages to cities. These educated people may otherwise contribute a lot for the success of Panchayati Raj.

Question 8.
Suggest methods to remove the defects of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:
The defects of the Panchayati Raj can be removed by following the ways given below:
1. Spread of Education:
The spread of education is most essential for making the Panchayati Raj System a success. The institutions of Panchayati Raj cannot function successfully unless the people are educated and do not perform their duties sincerely. An educated person will make the proper use of his vote and will be above caste and religion. The educated persons can run the administration of their village or city in a better way than the uneducated persons. The educated persons will promote the national interests of the country. The Village Panchayat can be a great success at the hands of educated persons.

2. Less Governmental Interference:
The Panchayati Raj institution should be given more independence and autonomy in the discharge of their duties. Unfortunately governmental control over these bodies is rather excessive. This control is usually very much resented. The government officials do not come with the object of improving the working of these bodies, but with a view to impose their authority, which is resented. This type of control kills initiative. The government, instead of interfering in the working of local bodies, should give them proper guidance.

3. More Financial Aid:
The Panchayati Raj institutions always run short of funds. The government should give liberal financial aid to these institutions. The government should give adequate funds to these institutions for all their schemes which aim at raising the living standard of the people and as eradicating poverty. The government should not at all attach any strings to the financial aid given to these institutions. These institutions should have the power to impose more taxes to increase their income. Efforts should be made to make these institutions quite independent of the financial aid of the government .

4. Ban on Political Parties in the Elections of Local bodies:
The elections to the local bodies should not be held on the basis of political parties. The political parties are responsible for the growth of groupism and communalism among the members of these institutions. In the elections to the local bodies the individuals should contest elections only as independent candidates. This way capable persons would be elected to these bodies and people will not be obliged to cast their votes on party basis. The local self-government institutions will function successfully only when educated and intelligent persons are elected as its members.

Training for the members:
The procedure of working of Panchayati Raj institutions is very complex and complicated. To make Panchayati Raj successful it is essential that the members of the Panchayati Raj institutions should be given proper training so that they become conversant with their duties and responsibilities.

The 73rd Amendment has provided decentralisation of power down to the village level. The 73rd amendment has provided constitution of Panchayats at the village and other levels, direct elections to all seats in Panchayats and reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes and fixing of tenure of five years for Panchayats. The 73rd Amendment is considered a landmark legislation in the process of decentralisation of power to the grass-roots level. Unlike in the past when the Panchayat Raj institutions were dominated by the money and muscle power, now the under-privileged classes, including rural women, would be able to play more effective role and the people’s democracy would become more genuine.

Question 9.
Explain the achievements of Panchayati Raj in India.
Or
Write down the achievements of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:
Panchayati Raj has a great importance. Late Pt. Jawahar Lai Nehru had called it a revolution. It is a revolution which will help in building up a new India. The significance of the Panchayati Raj is clear from the following facts:
1. People’s Raj:
The most important thing about the Panchayati Raj is that it is a people’s Raj. People’s administration had been established in the villages. There is no good administration than the administration by the people themselves.

2. Direct Democracy:
Panchayati Raj is not in any way less than the establishment of a democratic government in the village. The villagers themselves control the administration of their village. All the adult citizens of the village in their capacity, as the members of Gram Sabha, meet twice a year and discuss the problems of the village and find their solutions.

3. Self-sufficiency:
Panchayati Raj aims at making every village self-dependent for the purpose of making and executing their development plAnswer: It should decide on its own, it should even solve its own problem and it should run the local administration itself. Panchayats and Panchayat Samities are the people’s own institutions and they impose and collect taxes to meet the requirement of the villagers. Before the establishment of Village Panchayats, the government officials used to make development plans for the villages and they executed them according to their own sweet will. But now the people themselves run the whole show. The Block Development Officer now executes the decisions taken by the Panchayat Samiti.

4. Self-confidence:
Panchayati Raj helps in the development of the spirit of self-confidence among the people, and it helps in building up a great and
grand nation. The villagers themselves make development plans and execute them in their own way. The Panchayats have been given independence in the judicial sphere also. The lawyers cannot appear before the Panchayats. Everybody can have his say freely before the Panchayat. There are no fixed rules for deciding cases by the Panchayat. Each Panchayat decides cases according to its own sweet will. The villagers now need not go to the tehsil and district headquarters for getting their minor disputes decided. The villagers can get all their things in the village itself. They gain confidence by doing everything by themselves.

5. Less outside interference:
With the establishment of Panchayati Raj there is less outside interference in the affairs of the villages. The government officials now cannot interfere in the working of the Panchayats, Panchayat Samities and Zila Parishad. The people decide all the issues of their own sweet accord. Panchayati Raj has helped a great deal in developing the spirit of independence among the people.

6. Training in Administration to the people:
In India there is democratic government and each and every citizen is expected to be ready to shoulder the responsibility of running the government. Panchayati Raj is the best means of giving training in administration to the people. In cities the local self-government institutions provide training in making laws to the people but they do not give training in deciding cases to the people.

The Panchayati Raj provides an opportunity to the people of making and executing development plan, of deciding cases and running the day-to-day administration of the local affairs. This training of running the village administration stands in good stead to the people when they are called upon to run the administration of their State.

7. Rapid development of Rural life:
When Panchayati Raj was introduced in Punjab, the then Development and Panchayat Minister Sh. Gurbanta Singh had remarked that the day is not far when every citizen because of democratic decentralisation will become the architect of his own future. Everybody will have a share in the administration and he will have the power of removing his own illiteracy, ignorance and poverty. Now every villager has the right to develop himself to the fullest extent possible, Panchayati Raj has proved to be boon from heaven for the villagers.

Question 10.
Describe organisation and functions of City Corporation in India.
Or
Describe the functions of Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
Municipal Corporation is the topmost of urban local government. A Municipal Corporation is set up under a special statute passed by the state legislature, except in Delhi. The Union Parliament is empowered to set up the corporation of Delhi. First of all in 1849 a Municipal Corporation was established in Bombay (Mumbai).

Organisation:
Organisation of Municipal Corporation in different cities is not the same. The members of the corporation called councillors are elected on adult franchise. The number of members is determined by law on the basis of population of the city. In addition to the elected councillors some dignified residents of the city are elected by the councillors. In Punjab the total number of elected councillors for a corporation is not less than fifty and not more than seventy. Members of the State Legislative Assembly representing the constituencies in which the city or any part thereof falls, or ex-officio members of the Municipal Corporation.

Reservation of Seats:
In every Corporation seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Backward Classes and women.

1. The ratio of seats reserved for Scheduled Castes is in proportion to the total population of Scheduled Castes in the Municipal Corporation area. In Punjab, 50% seats are reserved for women in Municipal Corporations.

2. In every Municipal Corporation two seats are reserved for backward classes.

3. One-third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election are reserved for women and such seats are alotted by rotation to the different wards in the city.

Tenure:
Before 74th Amendment, the tenure of the Municipal Corporation varies from three to five years. The Punjab Municipal Corporation Act 1994 provides that every corporation save as otherwise provided in this Act shall continue for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting and to longer. New election shall take place before the expiry of five years term.

An election to constitute a Municipal Corporation shall be completed before the expiry of period of six months from the date of its dissolution. A corporation constituted upon the dissolution of a Municipal Corporation before the expiration of its duration, shall constitute only for the remainder of the period for which the dissolved corporation would have constituted. But by 74th Amendment, tenure is fixed as five years.

Qualifications:
Following qualifications are necessary for becoming the member of Municipal Corporation:

• The person should be a citizen of India.
• He must have completed the age of 21 years.
• His name should be in the voter list of the city concerned.
• He should not hold any office of profit under the government of India or any State government of local authority.
• He should not be insolvent and he should not be of unsound mind.
• He should not be held ineligible to contest election for committing a crime.

Officers of the Municipal Corporation:
Following are the main officers of the Municipal Corporation:
1. Mayor:
The Mayor is the first citizen of the city. The Mayor is the political executive of the municipal corporation. In the first meeting of the Municipal Corporation the members elect one of its members to be the Mayor and other two members to be the Senior Deputy Mayor and Deputy Mayor of the Corporation. The term of the office of a Mayor, Senior Deputy Mayor and Deputy Mayor is five years. The Mayor holds office from the time of his election until the election of his successor in office.

Mayor or Senior Deputy Mayor or Deputy Mayor can be removed from his office if a resolution is passed by a majority of the total membership of the Corporation by majority of not less than two-third of the members of the Corporation and present and voting in a meeting of the Corporation. When the Mayor is absent from duty on account of illness or any other cause, the Senior Deputy Mayor and in his absence the Deputy Mayor act as Mayor.

The Mayor is honoured as the first citizen of the city. He presides over the meetings of the corporation and maintains order in the meetings. He has access to all the records of the corporation. The Chief Administrative Officer or the Commissioner submits report on administrative matters to him. He is the proper channel of communication between the Commissioner and the State Government.

2. Chief Administrative Officer:
For running the administration of the Corporation, Chief Executive Officer or Commissioner is responsible. He is appointed by the state government. His salary and service conditions are fixed by the state government. His salary is paid out of municipal funds. He performs all the duties imposed or conferred upon him under the Act and, in times of emergency, may take any action he deems necessary. All municipal employees are subject to his supervision and control. He inflicts punishments for offences committed by the employees. He acts as a secretary to the corporation in furnishing the necessary information.

Functions of Corporation:
The functions of Municipal Corporation are of two types: 1. obligatory and 2. discretionary. The obligatory functions include those functions which must be performed by the corporation. The discretionary functions are those which are not compulsory but may be taken up depending upon its financial resources.

Obligatory Functions:

1. Supply of water and maintenance of water works.
2. Scavenging, removal and disposal of filth and rubbish.
3. Supply of electricity.
4. Construction and maintenance of roads and streets.
5. Lighting, watering and cleaning of public streets and public places.
6. Maintenance of fire-brigade.
7. To establish, manage and supervise schools.
8. Arrangement of transport facilities.
9. The removal of obstructions and projections in or upon streets, bridges and other public places.
10. Prevention of epidemic diseases and distribution of medicines.
11. Checking food adulteration in markets.
12. Regulation of places for disposal of dead bodies.
13. Registration of births and deaths.
14. Vaccination and inoculation.
15. Prevention of water pollution in the city area and air pollution from poisonous gases in industrial area within the city.
16. Publication of annual reports and returns on administration of the corporation.
17. Demolition of dangerous buildings.
18. The naming and numbering of streets and premises.
19. The maintenance of Municipal Offices.
20. The maintenance and development of the value of all properties vested in or interested to the management of the Corporation.
21. To undertake the tasks of slum clearance and rehabilitation of slum dwellers.

Discretionary Functions:

1. Construction of public parks, gardens, libraries, museums, theatres etc.
2. The construction and maintenance of rest houses, poor houses, children’s home, houses for the deaf and dumb and for disabled and handicapped children, shelters for destitutes and disabled persons.
3. Relief to destitute and disabled persons.
4. Planting and care of trees on road sides and elsewhere.
5. Civic reception of V.I.Ps.
6. Registration of marriages.
7. Survey of buildings and lands.
8. Organisation and management of fairs and exhibitions.
9. Playing of music for masses.
10. Opening of orphan houses.
11. Destruction or detention of mad dogs, ownerless dogs etc.
12. The organisation, construction, maintenance and management of swimming pools, public wash houses and bathing places.
13. The construction and maintenance of cattle ponds.
14. The organisation and management of cottage industries, handicraft centres and sales emporium.
15. The establisment and maintenance of veterinary hospitals.
16. The establishment and maintenance of hospitals, dispensaries and maternity and child welfare centres and the carrying out of other measures necessary for public medical relief.
17. The improvement of the city in accordance with improvement schemes approved by the corporation.
18. The construction and maintenance of ware houses and godowns.

Sources of Income:
Following are the sources of income of Municipal Corporation:

1. Water tax
2. Sanitary tax.
3. Taxes for the consumption of electricity
4. Property tax
5. Theatre tax
6. Tax on vehicles and animals
7. Professional tax
8. Entertainment tax
9. Tax on deeds of transfer of immovable property.
10. Betterment tax.
11. Advertisement tax
12. Grants-in-aid from the government.

Question 11.
Write down the functions and sources of Income of Municipal Council/Committee.
Or
Explain the composition and functions of Municipal Council.
Answer:
Municipal Committee or Council is the most important institution of urban government. The Municipal Committees are governed by the Municipal Acts of the states.

Composition:
The membership of the Municipal Committee is fixed by the state government on the basis of the population of the city. In U.P. the total members of the Municipal Committees vary from 20 to 45 according to population. Members of the Municipal Committee are elected on the basis of adult franchise. Every adult citizen who lives within the Municipal jurisdiction has the right to vote.

There is a provision for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the same proportion to the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in that Municipality, as the population of the Scheduled castes, in the Municipal area according to 74th Amendment. In Punjab, 50% seats are reserved for women in Municipality. One seat is reserved for the Backward classes. All members of the Legislative Assembly of the state representing constituencies comprising wholly or partly the Municipal area are members of the Municipal Committee.

Qualifications:
Only that person can contest the Municipal elections who possesses the following qualifications:

• He should be a citizen of India.
• He should have completed 21 years of age.
• He should not hold any office of profit under the government or a Municipal Committee.
• He should be a resident of that city and his name should exist in the voters’ list of that area.

Tenure:
Before 74th Amendment, the tenure of Municipal Committee varied from three to five years. In Punjab and Haryana the tenure of Municipality is five years. The government can suspend or supersede the Municipal Committee even before the expiry of its term and can appoint an administrator to run the municipal administration.

President:
The members of the Municipal Committee elect a President from among themselves. The members of the Municipal Committee can remove the President from office by a majority vote. There are two Vice-Presidents of the Municipal Committee the Senior Vice-President and the Junior Vice-President.

Secretary:
There is a Secretary of the Municipal Committee who is given a fixed salary. He runs the day-to-day administration of the Municipal Committee. He is appointed by the Municipal Committee. In some Municipal Committees there is an Executive Officer instead of a

Secretary:
Besides this, there are many permanent officials in the Municipal Committee. For example, the Engineer, Health Officer, Sanitary Inspector and Octroi Inspector etc.

Functions of the Municipal Committee:
The local bodies run the administration of local affairs. The Municipal Committee is to perform the following functions:

1. Sanitation:
The municipal administration is to look after the sanitary condition of the city. It is to ensure that the public roads are properly swept, cleaned and watered. Suitable arrangements are made for drainage and conservancy. For discharge of these functions a Municipality maintains sanitary staff under a Chief Sanitary Inspector. The Municipalities have also the power to examine and approve the plans of houses proposed to be built in the town. It sees that houses are built according to scientific and sanitary principles. It is the fundamental duty of the Municipal Committee to look after the sanitary conditions of the city.

2. Public Health:
The preservation of public health is a very important function of the Municipal Committee. The Municipal Committee makes arrangements for giving injection of small pox to the people. Functions performed by it are establishment and maintenance of hospitals and dispensaries, vaccination, prevention of the outbreak of diseases, provision of public lavatories, prevention of the sale of adulterated food stuffs, provision of maternity and child welfare facility etc. Every Municipality runs a medical department under the charge of a Health Officer.

3. Roads and Bridges:
It makes arrangements for the construction of roads and bridges within its area. Pucca roads are constructed in the bazaars and the streets. It also gets the roads and the bridges repaired whenever necessary. It provides every facility to the people for the purpose of movement.

4. Education:
The Municipal Committee also makes arrangements for providing education to the people. The establishment and maintenance of primary schools is one of the most important function of the Municipalities. Many Municipalities run colleges also. Reading rooms and libraries are also opened by the Municipal Committees. The Committees also give financial aid to the privately managed schools. Adult Education Centres are also opened by the Municipalities for educating the adults.

5. Water and Electricity:
It is another important function of the Municipal Committee to make arrangement of pure drinking water of the area. Previously the Municipal Committees used to dig wells for this purpose but now water is supplied in the houses of the people. Arrangement of water pumps is made in streets, bazaars and on public places. The municipality also makes arrangement of providing street lights. The arrangement of supply of electricity now-a-days is made by the State Government, but previously the Municipal Committee used to do all this.

6. Transport:
People experience great difficulty in big cities in going from one place to other. The Municipal Committee makes arrangement of tramways to remove this difficulty of the public. It issues licences to rickshaws, tongas and auto-rickshaws.

7. Other Functions:

• The Municipal Committee makes arrangements for cremation grounds,
• It makes arrangements for extinguishing the fire and maintains fire brigade stations for this purpose,
• It makes arrangements for killing the mad dogs and wild animals,
• It makes arrangements for playgrounds, parks and gardens,
• It approves plans for constructing houses,
• In big cities it makes arrangements for providing pure milk, vegetable oil and butter to the people,
• It also pays attention to the recreational activities of the people and makes arrangements for fairs, exhibitions and games for the people.

Sources of Income;
The Municipal Committee requires a huge sum of money for the performance of its functions. It gets the money from the sources given below:
1. Octroi:
The main source of the income of a Municipal Committee is the octroi tax. This tax is imposed on all those things which come to the city from the village. This tax is imposed only upon those things about which the Municipality already decided. The rate of octroi tax is different on different things.

2. House Tax: The Municipal Committee imposes house tax on all the houses in its jurisdiction.

3. Licence Fees:
The Municipality imposes tax on the possession of certain things, for example, tonga, cycle, rickshaw, tempo and other vehicles. The Committee issues licences to this effect.

4. Toll Tax: In certain cities a tax is imposed on the use of a bridge or a stream. Such tax is very much imposed in Uttar Pradesh.

5. Water and Electricity Tax:
The Municipal Committee makes arrangements for the supply of water and electricity in the streets and bazaars and for this purpose it imposes water and electricity tax on the owners of the house. It charges separately for the consumption of water and electricity in homes.

6. Professional Tax: It imposes tax on trade professions in its jurisdiction.

7. Entertainment: The Municipal Committee imposes tax on theatres, cinemas and wrestling matches.

8. Tax on Animals: It imposes tax on the possession of animals by the people.

9. Income from its Property: The Municipal Committee has its own property also which is given on rent. The rent from property is a great source of income.

10. Grants-in-aid from the State Government:
The income of the Municipal Committee is not enough by which all its needs can be satisfied. Every year the State Government gives grants-in-aid to the Municipal Committees.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of Panchayati Raj System.
Or
What do you understand by Panchayati Raj?
Answer:
Panchayati Raj may be described as a complex system of rural local self-government in India. Panchayati Raj is that system of administration in which the village people are given the right to manage their own local affairs and to satisfy their needs themselves. The villagers use this right through the Panchayats and it is called Panchayati Raj. The three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj is working in India.

Question 2.
Describe three tier system of Panchayati Raj as provided under the Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994.
Or
Write down the composition of Panchayati Raj System in India.
Answer:
The Panchayati Raj system as recommended by Balwant Rai Mehta Committee has been organised on a three-tier structure : Gram Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the Block level and Zila Parishad at the district level. In Punjab and Haryana, Panchayati Raj is organised on three-tier basis. In Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad are directly elected. But there are some states where Panchayati Raj is organised on two-tier basis. States with less than 20 lakh j population have been given the option to set up or not to set up Panchayat Samiti.

Question 3.
Explain the composition of Village Panchayat.
Or
Describe the composition of Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Both in Punjab and Haryana, Panchayats have been established in all the villages whose population is five hundred or more than this. In Punjab, if the population of a village is less than 200 then a joint Panchayat of two villages is established. The size of the membership of the Gram Panchayat varies from 5 to 31. In Haryana, membership of the Panchayat is between 6 and 20 while in Punjab it is between 5 and 13.

The membership of a Panchayat is fixed on the basis of the population of the village. In Punjab if the population of a village is between 200 to 1000 then the number of Panches is five ; if the population is between 5000 to 10,000 then number of Panches is eleven and if the population is more than 10,000 then the number of Panches is thirteen. There is a provision for the reservation of seats for scheduled castes and backward classes in proportion to their population in the Gram Panchayat. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women.

Question 4.
What is Gram Sabha?
Or
Write down the composition of Gram Sabha.
Answer:
The state govt, may by notification establish a Gram Sabha by name for every area declared as Gram Sabha area. The Gram Sabha is the general body consisting of all the voters residing in the Gram Sabha area. The Gram Sabha elects a Gram Pradhan for five years. Gram Pradhan is also a Sarpanch of the Gram Panchayat. Every Gram Sabha holds two general meetings in each year, one in the month of December and another in the month of June. The Gram Sabha approves annual budget and plan of development programme and it renders assistance in the implementation of development schemes pertaining to the village.

Question 5.
How is Panch elected?
Answer:
Panch is directly elected by the members of the Gram Sabha by secret ballot. Every adult who is a resident of the village has got the right to vote in the Panchayat election. Any voter who is 21 years of age or more can contest the election and become a Panch.

Question 6.
How is Sarpanch elected?
Answer:
Sarpanch is the head of the gram panchayat. In Punjab Sarpanch is elected directly by the voters.

Question 7.
Who is the Head (Sabhapati) of Gram Panchayat? Write his three functions.
Answer:
Gram Pradhan or Sarpanch is the head of the Gram Panchayat. According to 73rd amendment in all states Sarpanch is directly elected by all the members of the Gram Sabha. In Punjab Sarpanch is elected for a period of five years. Following are the main functions of a Sarpanch :

• The Sarpanch is responsible for convening the meetings of the Gram Sabha and presides over its meetings.
• The Sarpanch is responsible for convening the meetings of the Gram Panchayat and presides over 1 its meetings.
• The Sarpanch is responsible for the maintenance of the records of the Gram Panchayat.
• The Sarpanch has the general responsibility for the financial and executive administration of the Gram Panchayat.

Question 8.
Describe any four sources of income of Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of Gram Panchayat:

• Taxes: In most of the states, Gram Panchayats have been empowered to levy a number of taxes optional or compulsory.
• Fees and Fines: In almost all the states, Panchayats are authorised to impose certain types of fees, fines or penalties.
• Grants and Contributions: In all the states, Gram Panchayats depend heavily upon the grants from the state governments. Panchayats having other but very poor sources almost totally depend upon grants.
• It can get fees for use of rest-houses.

Question 9.
Write four sources of income of Panchayat Samiti.
Answer:
Panchayat Samiti, generally, collects the money by way of taxes, fees, grants and contributions and some other minor sources.

1. Taxes: A Panchayat Samiti in Punjab and Haryana can levy any tax which the legislature of the state has power to impose under the Constitution of India.
2. Local Rate: In Punjab the most important source of income of the Panchayat Samitis is the local rate. It is a cess levied on land at the rate of 25 paise per rupee of annual value.
3. Fees: In Punjab and Haryana, a Panchayat Samiti may levy fees, with the previous permission of Zila Parishad and Deputy Commissioner respectively and subject to the general direction and control by the government.
4. All rents and profits occurring from property vested in or managed by the Panchayat Samiti.

Question 10.
Write any four public functions of a Gram Panchayat.
Or
Describe any four functions of Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of the Village Panchayat:
1. Village Panchayat maintains peace and order in the village. It helps the police in the prevention of crimes and the arrest of criminals.

2. It makes efforts for improving the health of the people, and for this purpose it opens hospitals and dispensaries. It also establishes child-welfare and maternity centres. It makes arrangements for giving small pox and cholera injections to the people.

3. It constructs, repairs and maintains public wells, ponds and tanks. It makes arrangements for drinking water and for pouring medicine into the wells, tanks etc.

4. It constructs and maintains streets, roads and bridges in the village.

Question 11.
Write any four functions of Panchayat Samiti.
Or
Mention three important functions of Block Samiti.
Answer:
The Panchayat Samiti performs the following functions:
1. The Panchayat Samiti looks after the working of Panchayats in its area.

2. It tries to promote agriculture in its area and distributes among the farmers good seeds, fertilizers and scientific instruments. It makes propaganda of scientific methods of agriculture among the farmers. It advances loans to the farmers for the promotion of agricultural production. It tries to make better arrangements for irrigation in its areas.

3. It makes sanitary arrangement in its area. It takes steps for improving the health of the people. It opens hospitals, child-welfare centres and maternity centres.

4. Panchayat Samiti promotes Co-operative activities.

Question 12.
Discuss the composition of a Panchayat Samiti.
Answer:
In Punjab, a Panchayat Samiti consists of the following types of members :

• Six to ten directly elected members from territorial constituencies in the Panchayat Samiti area.
• Representatives of the Sarpanches are directly elected by them from amongst the Sarpanches of the Gram Panchayats in the Panchayat Samiti area.
• Members of the Legislative Assembly of the state whose constituency falls in the Panchayat Samiti area.
• Members of the Legislative Council, who are registered as electors within the Panchayat Samiti area.
• There is a provision for the reservation of seats for scheduled castes and backward classes in proportion to their population in the Panchayat Samiti area. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women.

Question 13
What is Panchayat Samiti?
Answer:
The intermediate tier in the Panchayati Raj System is known in several states as the Panchayat Samiti. In Punjab each block has a Block Samiti known as Panchayat Samiti. According to Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 every Panchayat Samiti consists of 6 to 10 members. The Panchayat Samitis are expected to help in the execution of development programmes, encourage agriculture and small scale industry.

Question 14.
Write the composition of Zila Parishad.
Answer:
In Punjab, Zila Parishad comprises the following categories of members :

• The members directly elected from territorial constituencies in the district, each constituency electing one member.
• All Chairmen of Panchayat Samitis.
• Members of the Lok Sabha and members of the State Legislative Assembly representing a part or whole of the district.
• Members of the Rajya Sabha and members of the State Legislative Council, who are registered as voters within the district.In every Zila Parishad seats are reserved for scheduled castes, backward classes and women. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women.

Question 15.
Write down the four weaknesses of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:

• The majority of the villagers are uneducated and most of the members of a Village Panchayat are also uneducated.
• The government exercises a greater degree of control in the working of Panchayats, Panchayat Samitis and Zila Parishads.
• The Panchayati Raj institutions do not have sufficient funds to meet their needs.
• Due to poverty and unemployment people do not take interest in their local problems.

Question 16.
Give any four changes incorporated in the Panchayati Raj Act to improve the Panchayati Raj.
Answer:
73rd constitutional amendment has incorporated the following three important provisions in the constitution to improve the Panchayati Raj :
1. Direct Election of the Members:
According to 73rd amendment all members of the Gram Panchayat are directly elected by the voters of the Gram Sabha. For this purpose the territorial area of each Gram Panchayat is divided into territorial constituencies—and one member is elected from each constituency.

2. Tenure of Panchayat:
According to 73rd Amendment Act, the tenure of Panchayats in all the states is 5 years. If a Panchayat is dissolved or superseded before the expiry of its tenure, it is obligatory to hold election within six months.

3. State Election Commission:
For the supervision, superintendence and control of election staff of Panchayati Raj institutions, provision for the establishment of independent election commission at the state level has been made.

4. The members of the Panchayati Raj Institutions should be given proper training so that they become conversant with their duties and responsibilities.

Question 17.
Write down the importance of Panchayati Raj in India.
Answer:
According to Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, Panchayati Raj is a new revolution which will help in the building of a new India.

1. People’s Raj: The most important thing about the Panchayati Raj is that it is the people’s raj. People’s administration has been established in the villages.
2. Direct Democracy: Panchayati Raj is not in any way less than the establishment of a democratic government in the village. The villagers themselves control the administration of their village.
3. Self-sufficiency: Panchayati Raj aims at making every village self-dependent for the purpose of making and executing its development plAnswer: The Panchayati Raj institutions make people self-dependent and self-reliant.
4. Panchayati Raj helps in the development of the spirit of self-confidence among the people.

Question 18.
Mention three methods to remove the defects of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:
1. Education: The spread of education is most essential for making the Panchayati Raj System a success.

2. Autonomy: The Panchayati Raj institutions should be given more independence and autonomy in the discharge of their duties.

3. More Financial Aid:
The Panchayati Raj institutions always run short of funds. The government should give liberal financial aid to these institutions. Efforts should be done to make these institutions quite independent of the financial aid of the government.

4. Training for the members. To make Panchayati Raj successful it is essential that the members of the Panchayati Raj institutions should be given proper training so that they become conversant with their duties and responsibilities.

Question 19.
Write any four functions of Zila Parishad.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of Zila Parishad:

1. A Zila Parishad keeps a watch on the working of Panchayat Samitis in its area. It tries to co-ordinate the working of Panchayat and Panchayat Samitis in the district.
2. The Panchayat Samitis pass their annual budget and send it to the Zila Parishad. The Zila Parishad gives its approval to the budget after considering it thoroughly.
3. If two or more than two villages have a common project, the Zila Parishad tries to co-ordinate their working and helps in making the plan a success.
4. It can give suggestions to the government regarding the development of villages.

Question 20.
Who can contest election to a Municipality?
Answer:
Only that person can contest the Municipal elections who possesses the following qualifications :

• He should be a citizen of India.
• He should have completed 21 years of age.
• He should not hold any office of profit.
• He should be a resident of that city and his name should exist in the voters’ list of the area.

Question 21.
Give the composition of a Municipal Committee.
Or
Write down the composition of Municipal Council.
Answer:
The membership of the Municipal Committee is fixed by the state government on the basis of the population of the city. The total number of members of the Municipal Committees varies from 5 to 50 according to population. Members of the Municipal Committee are elected on the basis of adult franchise. Every adult citizen who lives within the Municipal jurisdiction has the right to vote. There is a provision for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women. There is also a provision for the election of Aldermen. The Aldermen are elected by the elected members and ex-officio members.

Question 22.
Describe any four sources of income of a Municipal Committee.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of a Municipal Committee :

1. Octroi: The main source of income of a Municipal Committee is the octroi tax.
2. House Tax: The Municipal Committee imposes house tax on all the houses in its jurisdiction.
3. Licence Fees: The Municipality imposes tax on the possession of certain things, for example, tonga, rickshaw, tempo and other vehicles. The Committee issues licences to this effect.
4. Toll Tax: In certain cities a tax is imposed on the use of a bridge or a stream.

Question 23.
Mention any four important functions of a Municipality.
Answer:

• The Municipal Committee is responsible for sanitary conditions of the city. It is the function of the Committee to see that public roads are properly swept, cleaned and watered.
• The Municipal Committee makes arrangements for the construction of roads and bridges within its area.
• The Municipal Committee makes provisions for the supply of clean drinking water in its area.
• The Minicipal committee also makes arrangements for providing education to the people.

Question 24.
Who is the Mayor? Write down the role of Mayor in a Corporation.
Or
Who is Mayor? How Mayor of Municipal Corporation is elected?
Answer:
Mayor is the political executive of the Municipal Corporation. In the first meeting of the corporation, Mayor is elected for five years from among the members of the corporation. The Mayor is honoured as the first citizen of the city. He presides over the meetings of the corporation and maintains order in the meeting. He has access to all the records of the Corporation.

He is the proper channel of communication between the commissioner and the state government. Members of the Municipal Corporation can remove the Mayor by passing a resolution to that effect by two third majority. If Mayor does not perform his duties in a proper manner or abuses his powers, then the state government has the right to remove him from office before the expiry of his term.

Question 25.
Explain the local bodies of Urban areas.
Answer:
In order to bring about uniformity in constituting Urban Local Bodies three tier structure of Urban Local Bodies has been envisaged under Article 243 of the Constitution inserted by the Constitution Amendment Act of 1992. These Urban Local Bodies are:

• Nagar Panchayat for a transitional area.
• Municipal Council for a smaller urban area.
• Municipal Corporation for a larger urban area.

Question 26.
What is called Corporation?
Answer:
The term Corporation means the complete entity which embraces both deliberative and executive wings. Municipal Corporation is the topmost of urban local government. It is the topmost, not in the sense that it exercises control over other forms of urban local bodies. The municipal corporation as an institution is more respectable and enjoys more autonomy than other forms of urban local bodies. A Municipal Corporation is set up under a special statute passed by the state legislature, except in Delhi. Municipal Corporation is meant for bigger towns where civil problems acquire a high degree of complexity.

Question 27.
Explain the composition of a Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
Organisation of Municipal Corporation in different cities is not the same. The members of the Municipal Corporation called councillors are elected directly on the basis of adult franchise. The government determines the number of elected councillors for a corporation. But the total number of elected councillors shall in no case be less than forty and more than seventy. The number of elected councillors of the corporation of Amritsar is sixty and Ludhiana is seventy.

All members of the Legislative Assembly of the state representing constituencies comprising wholly or partly the Municipal Corporation are ex-officio members of the Municipal Corporation. In every corporation seats are reserved for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Two seats in each corporation are reserved for members of the Backward Classes. In Punjab 50% seats are reserved for women. The tenure of the Municipal Corporation is five years. If Municipal Corporation is dissolved earlier then election must be held within six months.

Question 28.
Mention any three sources of income of Municipal Corporation.
Or
Write any four important sources of income of Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of Municipal Corporation:

1. Water Tax
2. Sanitary Tax.
3. Taxes for consumption of electricity
4. Property Tax
5. Theatre Tax
6. Tax on vehicles and animals.

Question 29.
Write down the names of urban local bodies.
Answer:
The names of urban local bodies are as under:

1. Municipal Corporation
2. Municipal Council
3. Municipal Committee
4. Cantonment Board
5. Improvement Trust
6. Port Trust.

Question 30.
What is City Improvement Trust? Explain its functions in brief.
Or
What do you mean by Improvement Trust and what are its functions?
Answer:
Improvement Trust is an urban local body established in big cities. Some members of the Improvement Trust are elected by Municipal Committee and some are nominated by state government. The Chairman of Improvement Trust is nominated by the government. He is also the executive of the Improvement Trust. He has the power to appoint certain employees drawing salary below a particular limit. He also executes the decisions taken by the Improvement Trust. The main purpose of this body is to improve the condition of the city. For this purpose this body plans for new colonies, opens up the congested areas, makes bye-laws etc. The Improvement Trust also has some sources of income. State government has the right to control this body.

Question 31.
Write down any four objectives of Panchayati Raj.
Answer:
Following are the main objectives of the Panchayati Raj System:

• To strengthen the democracy at grass-root level.
• To encourage the spirit of community development and self-reliance among the villagers.
• To provide opportunities to the villagers to solve their problems themselves.
• To promote mutual harmony among the people at village level.

Question 32.
What is Cantonment Board?
Or
What is Cantonment Board? How is it working?
Or
Write a note on Cantonment Board.
Answer:
Cantonment Board is always established in military area. It is formed for the fulfilment of different necessary needs of military personnel. Contonment Board is under the supervision of Command Officer of army. Fifty percent members of Cantonment Board are appointed or nominated and rest fifty percent are elected by the people of military area. Cantonment Board facilitates water-supply, education, health, cleanliness, electricity services etc. for the people of military area.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by Panchayati Raj?
Answer:
Panchayati Raj may be described as a complex system of rural local self-government in India. Panchayati Raj is that system of administration in which the village people are given the right to manage their own local affairs and to satisfy their needs themselves.

Question 2.
Describe the composition of Village Panchayat.
Answer:
Both in Punjab and Haryana, Panchayats have been established in all the villages whose population is five hundred or more than this. In Punjab, if the population of a village is less than 200 then a joint Panchayat of two villages is established. The size of the membership of the Gram Panchayat varies from 5 to 31.

Question 3.
What is Gram Sabha?
Answer:
The Gram Sabha is the general body consisting of all the voters residing in the Gram Sabha area. The Gram Sabha elects a Gram Pradhan for five years. Gram Pradhan is also a Sarpanch of the Gram Panchayat. Every Gram Sabha holds two general meetings in each year, one in the month of December and another in the month of June.

Question 4.
How is Panch elected?
Answer:
Panch is directly elected by the members of the Gram Sabha by secret ballot. Every adult who is a resident of the village has got the right to vote in the Panchayat election. Any voter who is 21 years of age or more can contest the election and become a Panch.

Question 5.
How is Sarpanch elected?
Answer:
Sarpanch is the head of the gram panchayat. In Punjab state Sarpanch is elected directly by the voters.

Question 6.
0Which part and which schedule is incorporated in Indian Constitution for the establishment of rural self government?
Answer:
Part-IX and schedule 11th is incorporated in Indian Constitution for the establishment of rural self government.

Question 7.
Describe any three sources of income of Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of Gram Panchayat :

1. Taxes: In most of the states, Gram Panchayats have been empowered to levy a number of taxes—optional or compulsory.
2. Fees and Fines: In almost all the states, Panchayats are authorised to impose certain types of fees, fines or penalties.

Question 8.
Mention any two sources of income of Panchayat Samiti.
Answer:
Panchayat Samiti, generally, collects the money by way of taxes, fees, grants and contributions and some other minor sources.

1. Taxes: A Panchayat Samiti in Punjab and Haryana can levy any tax which the legislature of the state has power to impose under the Constitution of India.
2. Local Rate: In Punjab the most important source of income of the Panchayat Samitis is the local rate. It is acess levied on land at the rate of 25 paise per rupee of annual value.

Question 9.
Write down any two functions of Gram Panchayat.
Or
Describe any two common functions of Panchayats.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of the Village Panchayat:
1. Village Panchayat maintains peace and order in the village. It helps the police in the prevention of crimes and the arrest of criminals.

2. It makes efforts for improving the health of the people, and for this purpose it opens hospitals and dispensaries. It also establishes child-welfare and maternity centres. It makes arrangements for giving small pox and cholera injections to the people.

Question 10.
Write any two functions of Panchayat Samiti.
Answer:
The Panchayat Samiti performs the following functions:
1. The Panchayat Samiti looks after the working of Panchayats in its area.

2. It tries to promote agriculture in its area and distributes among the farmers good seeds, fertilizers and scientific instruments. It makes propaganda of scientific methods of agriculture among the farmers. It advances loans to the farmers for the promotion of agricultural production. It tries to make better arrangements for irrigation in its areas.

Question 11
What is Panchayat Samiti?
Answer:
The intermediate tier in the Panchayati Raj System is known in several states as the Panchayat Samiti. In Punjab each block has a Block Samiti known as Panchayat Samiti. According to Punjab Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 every Panchayat Samiti consists of 6 to 10 members.

Question 12.
What are the aims of Panchayati Raj?
Answer:

• The aim of Panchayati Raj is to establish true democracy in rural areas.
• Socio-economic development of rural India is the main aim of Panchayati Raj.

Question 13.
Mention any two weaknesses of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:

• The majority of the villagers are uneducated and most of the members of a Village Panchayat are also uneducated.
• The government exercises a greater degree of control on the working of Panchayats, Panchayat Samitis and Zila Parishads.

Question 14.
Give any two changes incorporated in the Panchayati Raj Act to improve the Panchayati Raj.
Answer:

1. Direct Election of the Members: According to 73rd Amendment, all members of the Gram Panchayat are directly elected by the voters of the Gram Sabha.
2. Tenure of Panchayat: According to 73rd Amendment Act, the tenure of Panchayats in all the states is 5 years. If a Panchayat is dissolved or superseded before the expiry of its tenure, it is obligatory to hold election within six months.

Question 15.
Write down the importance of Panchayati Raj in India.
Answer:

1. People’s Raj: The most important thing about the Panchayati Raj is that it is the people’s raj. People’s administration has been established in the villages.
2. Direct Democracy: Panchayati Raj is not in any way less than the establishment of a democratic government in the village. The villagers themselves control the administration of their village.

Question 16.
Write down any two methods to remove the defects of Panchayati Raj System.
Answer:

• Education: The spread of education is most essential for making the Panchayati Raj System a success.
• Autonomy: The Panchayati Raj institutions should be given more independence and autonomy in the discharge of their duties.

Question 17.
Mention any two functions of the Zila Parishad.
Answer:
Following are the main functions of Zila Parishad:

1. A Zila Parishad keeps a watch on the working of Panchayat Samitis in its area. It tries to co-ordinate the working of Panchayat and Panchayat Samitis in the district.
2. The Panchayat Samitis pass their annual budget and send it to the Zila Parishad. The Zila Parishad gives its approval to the budget after considering it thoroughly.

Question 18.
Who can contest election to a Municipality?
Answer:
Only that person can contest the Municipal election who possesses the following qualifications:

• He should be a citizen of India.
• He should have completed 21 years of age.

Question 19.
Discuss the composition of a Municipal Committee.
Answer:
The membership of the Municipal Committee is fixed by the state government on the basis of the population of the city. The total number of members of the Municipal Committees varies from 5 to 50 according to population. Members of the Municipal Committee are elected on the basis of adult franchise. Every adult citizen who fives within the Municipal jurisdiction has the right to vote. There is a provision for reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes.

Question 20.
Which part and which shedule is incorporated in Indian Constitution for the establishment of urban local self government?
Answer:
Part-IX-A and Schedule 12th is incorporated in Indian Constitution for the establishment of urban local self government.

Question 21.
Write down any two sources of income of a Municipal Committee.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of a Municipal Committee:

• Octroi: The main source of income of a Municipal Committee is the octroi tax.
• House Tax: The Municipal Committee imposes house tax on all the houses in its jurisdiction.

Question 22.
Mention any two important functions of a Municipality.
Answer:

• The Municipal Committee is responsible for sanitary conditions of the city. It is the function of the Committee to see that public roads are properly swept, cleaned and watered.
• The Municipal Committee makes arrangements for the construction of roads and bridges within its area.

Question 23.
Who is Mayor?
Answer:
Mayor is the political executive of the Municipal Corporation. In the first meeting of the Corporation, Mayor is elected for five years from among the members of the Corporation. The Mayor is honoured as the first citizen of the city. He presides over the meetings of the Corporation and maintains order in the meeting. He has access to all the records of the Corporation.

Question 24.
Explain the composition of a Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
The members of the Municipal Corporation called councillors are elected directly on the basis of adult franchise. The government determines the number of elected councillors for a Corporation. All members of the Legislative Assembly of the state representing constituencies comprising wholly or partly the Municipal Corporation are ex-officio members of the Municipal Corporation. In every Corporation seats are reserved for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

Question 25.
Describe the sources of income of Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
Following are the main sources of income of Municipal Corporation:

1. Water Tax
2. Sanitary Tax
3. Taxes for consumption of electricity
4. Property Tax

Question 26.
Write the names of institutions (Bodies) under urban self government.
Answer:
The names of urban local bodies are as under:

1. Municipal Corporation
2. Municipal Council
3. Municipal Committee
4. Cantonment Board
5. Improvement Trust
6. Port Trust.

Question 27.
What do you mean by improvement trust and what are its functions?
Answer:
Improvement Trust is an urban local body established in big cities. Some members of the Improvement Trust are elected by Municipal Committee and some are nominated by state government. The chairman of Improvement Trust is nominated by the government.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Who is considered the father of local self-government in India?
Answer:
Lord Ripon is the father of local self-government in India.

Question 2.
What do you mean by ‘Nyaya Panchayat’? Mention its function.
Answer:
The Nyaya Panchayat is a Judicial Panchayat. Its main objective is to provide a speedy and inexpensive system of justice to the people of rural areas.

Question 3.
Give any one function of a Zila Parishad.
Answer:
It examines and approves the budget of Panchayat Samitis.

Question 4.
What are grass root organisations?
Answer:
Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad are the grass root organisations.

Question 5.
Namy two local self-governing institutions in the urban area.
Answer:

• • Municipal Corporation.
  • Municipal Committee.

Question 6.
Who is the Chairman of Municipal Corporation?
Answer:
Mayor is the Chairman of the Municipal Corporation.

Question 7.
Who is the head of a Municipal Corporation? What is his normal term of office?
Answer:
The head of the Corporation is Mayor or Mahapour. The normal term of his office is five years.

Question 8.
By what name is the elected head of a Municipal Corporation known?
Answer:
The elected head of a Municipal Corporation is known as Mayor of the Corporation.

Question 9.
Who is the elected head of a city Corporation?
Answer:
The elected head of a city Corporation is generally known as Mayor.

Question 10.
Mention any one function of Municipal Corporation.
Answer:
Municipal Corporation makes arrangement for the supply of pure and wholesome water and maintenance of water works.

Question 11.
Write the name of top and bottom level of Institution under Punjab Panchayati Raj.
Answer:

• Top Level Institution – Zila Parishad.
• Bottom Level Institution – Gram Sabha.

Question 12.
How is the Municipal Corporation formed?
Answer:
The Municipal Corporation is set up under a special statute passed by the State Legislature. Its members are elected by the people on the basis of the principle of adult franchise.

Question 13.
How are the members of a Corporation elected?
Answer:
The members of a Corporation are elected directly by the people of the city on the basis of the principle of adult suffrage. Apart from the Councillors, some Corporations have Aldermen also who are elected by the Councillors.

Fill in The Blanks

1. Sh …………….. had recommended the three tier Panchayati Raj.
Answer:
Balwant Rai Mehta

2. 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments give the …………….. status to local bodies institutions.
Answer:
Constitutional

3. Local Self-government is a …………….. subject.
Answer:
state

4. Tenure of Municipality is …………….. years.
Answer:
five years

5. Highest unit of Urban Local bodies is …………….. .
Answer:
Municipal Corporation

6. Tenure of Gram Panchayat is …………….. years.
Answer:
five.

True or False Statement

1. There should be centralization for the offective governance.
Answer:
False

2. 73rd Constitutional Amendment defines the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
True

3. There is a Five Tier Panchayati Raj system according to 73rd Amendment.
Answer:
False

4. Municipality is the supreme unit of urban local bodies.
Answer:
False

5. Local bodies institutions do not have enough funds to meet their needs.
Answer:
True

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
The new urban local self government system was introduced:
(a) by 71st Constitutional Amendment
(b) by 73rd Constitutional Amendment
(c) by 61st Constitutional Amendment
(d) by 74th Constitutional Amendment.
Answer:
(d) by 74th Constitutional Amendment.

Question 2.
Which constitutional amendment was passed for rural local self government?
(a) 8th
(b) 11th
(c) 73rd
(d) 85th.
Answer:
(c) 73rd

Question 3.
For whom are the seats reserved under 73rd Amendment regarding rural democracy?
(a) Only for ladies
(b) Only for scheduled castes
(c) Only for children
(d) For ladies and scheduled castes.
Answer:
(d) For ladies and scheduled castes.

Question 4.
Which of the following is not an institution of rural Local Government?
(a) Panchayats
(b) Zila Parishad
(c) Muncipal Corporation
(d) Gram Sabha.
Answer:
(c) Muncipal Corporation

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 9 Indian Democracy: Problems and Challenges Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Political Science Chapter 9 Indian Democracy: Problems and Challenges

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by Parliamentary system? Explain any four features of a Parliamentary System of Government.
Or
What is Parliamentary System? Discuss its essential features.
Answer:
What is a Parliamentary form of government? Parliamentary type of government is also called Cabinet government or Responsible government. In this form of government there is a nominal head of the State and all executive powers are exercised by a Cabinet of ministers. These ministers are usually members of the legislature. They are individually and collectively responsible to the legislature for their action and policies. They attend the meetings of the legislature and answer the questions put to them by the members of the legislature.

If the legislature passes a vote of no-confidence against them, they resign their offices. Other members who possess the confidence of the legislature are then appointed as ministers. The members of the Cabinet are usually selected from among the legislators or the party or parties which command a majority in the legislature. Each minister is incharge of one or more departments.

Garner observes, “Cabinet government is that system in which the real executive the Cabinet or Ministry is immediately and legally responsible to the legislature or one branch of it. (usually the more popular chamber) for its legislative and administrative act and ultimately or politically responsible to the electorate, while the titular or nominal executive the chief of the State occupies a position of irresponsibility.

Parliamentary system had its origin in Britain and now most of the countries have adopted it. India, England, Canada, Denmark, Australia, Belgium, Japan, Bangla Desh and so many other countries have adopted parliamentary form of government.

Features of Parliamentary Government:
The important features of Parliamentary government are as follows:
1. Head of the State is a Nominal Executive:
There is a titular executive head of the state either elected for a definite time or a hereditary monarch. Almost all the executive powers of the government are vested with the head of the State but it is only in theory and in practice all these powers are exercised by the real executive. The nominal head of the State always acts on the advice of the council of ministers. The head of the State cannot do anything at his own initiative. In fact, it is the council of ministers which exercises the power of the head of the State. The head of the State cannot do anything without taking the council of ministers into confidence.

2. Close Relationship between Executive and Legislature:
There exists a close relationship between the Cabinet and the Legislature. All the members of the cabinet are the members of the legislatures. They attend the meetings of the legislature and answer questions put to them by the members of the legislature. If an outsider is oppointed a minister he must become the member of the legislature within a definite period otherwise he ceases to be the member of the council of ministers. The ministers pilot the bills and see that they are passed. They are legislators as well as administrators.

3. Responsibility of the Cabinet:
The responsibility of the Cabinet means that so long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature, it remains in power. Whenever the majority party is turned into minority or a vote of no-confidence or a vote of censure is passed against the government, it must go out and give place to the party which can then command majority. The council of ministers always acts in accordance with the wishes of the legislature.

4. Tenure of the Cabinet is not fixed:
The tenure of the council of ministers is not definite. They can remain in office till the legislature wishes them to remain in office. The legislature can remove the members of the council of ministers from their office. If the majority of the members of the legislature passes a vote of no-confidence against the cabinet, then cabinet will have to resign.

5. Leadership of the Prime Minister:
In parliamentary system, Cabinet works under the leadership of the Prime Minister. Leader of the majority party in the Lower Chamber is appointed as the Prime Minister of the country and all other ministers are appointed by him. The head of the State neither appoints ministers of his own accord nor he can ask them to quit the office. The Prime Minister selects his colleagues from among the members of his party and the President approves them. He forms the Cabinet, he can alter it, he can destroy it altogether. If he resigns, the whole Council of Ministers goes out of office. He summons the meetings of the Cabinet and presides over them. He can ask any minister to resign.

6. Political Homogeneity:
Cabinet works as a unit. But it can work as a unit only when all ministers in the Council of Ministers are taken from the single political party. The Prime Minister includes all the “big guns’ of his party in the Council of Ministers. .

7. Secrecy:
Proceedings of the Cabinet are confidential. No minister can give publicity to the proceedings of the Cabinet. The decision of the Cabinet can be disclosed only by a minister authorised by the Prime Minister. At the time of the assumption of the office, every minister takes the oath of secrecy.

8. Dissolution of the Lower House:
One of the important features of the Indian and British parliamentary government is the right of the council of ministers to dissolve the Lower House of the Parliament.

Question 2.
Explain any six characteristics of Parliamentary Governing System in India.
Or
What is Parliamentary form of Government? Explain any four characteristics of Indian Parliamentary Government in detail.
Answer:
Meaning of Parliamentary form of Government:
What is a Parliamentary form of government? Parliamentary type of government is also called Cabinet government or Responsible government. In this form of government there is a nominal head of the State and all executive powers are exercised by a Cabinet of ministers. These ministers are usually members of the legislature. They are individually and collectively responsible to the legislature for their action and policies. They attend the meetings of the legislature and answer the questions put to them by the members of the legislature.

If the legislature passes a vote of no-confidence against them, they resign their offices. Other members who possess the confidence of the legislature are then appointed as ministers. The members of the Cabinet are usually selected from among the legislators or the party or parties which command a majority in the legislature. Each minister is incharge of one or more departments.

Garner observes, “Cabinet government is that system in which the real executive the Cabinet or Ministry is immediately and legally responsible to the legislature or one branch of it. (usually the more popular chamber) for its legislative and administrative act and ultimately or politically responsible to the electorate, while the titular or nominal executive the chief of the State occupies a position of irresponsibility.

Parliamentary system had its origin in Britain and now most of the countries have adopted it. India, England, Canada, Denmark, Australia, Belgium, Japan, Bangla Desh and so many other countries have adopted parliamentary form of government.

Features of Parliamentary Government:
The important features of Parliamentary government are as follows:
1. Head of the State is a Nominal Executive:
There is a titular executive head of the state either elected for a definite time or a hereditary monarch. Almost all the executive powers of the government are vested with the head of the State but it is only in theory and in practice all these powers are exercised by the real executive. The nominal head of the State always acts on the advice of the council of ministers. The head of the State cannot do anything at his own initiative. In fact, it is the council of ministers which exercises the power of the head of the State. The head of the State cannot do anything without taking the council of ministers into confidence.

2. Close Relationship between Executive and Legislature:
There exists a close relationship between the Cabinet and the Legislature. All the members of the cabinet are the members of the legislatures. They attend the meetings of the legislature and answer questions put to them by the members of the legislature. If an outsider is oppointed a minister he must become the member of the legislature within a definite period otherwise he ceases to be the member of the council of ministers. The ministers pilot the bills and see that they are passed. They are legislators as well as administrators.

3. Responsibility of the Cabinet:
The responsibility of the Cabinet means that so long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature, it remains in power. Whenever the majority party is turned into minority or a vote of no-confidence or a vote of censure is passed against the government, it must go out and give place to the party which can then command majority. The council of ministers always acts in accordance with the wishes of the legislature.

4. Tenure of the Cabinet is not fixed:
The tenure of the council of ministers is not definite. They can remain in office till the legislature wishes them to remain in office. The legislature can remove the members of the council of ministers from their office. If the majority of the members of the legislature passes a vote of no-confidence against the cabinet, then cabinet will have to resign.

5. Leadership of the Prime Minister:
In parliamentary system, Cabinet works under the leadership of the Prime Minister. Leader of the majority party in the Lower Chamber is appointed as the Prime Minister of the country and all other ministers are appointed by him. The head of the State neither appoints ministers of his own accord nor he can ask them to quit the office. The Prime Minister selects his colleagues from among the members of his party and the President approves them. He forms the Cabinet, he can alter it, he can destroy it altogether. If he resigns, the whole Council of Ministers goes out of office. He summons the meetings of the Cabinet and presides over them. He can ask any minister to resign.

6. Political Homogeneity:
Cabinet works as a unit. But it can work as a unit only when all ministers in the Council of Ministers are taken from the single political party. The Prime Minister includes all the “big guns’ of his party in the Council of Ministers.

7. Secrecy:
Proceedings of the Cabinet are confidential. No minister can give publicity to the proceedings of the Cabinet. The decision of the Cabinet can be disclosed only by a minister authorised by the Prime Minister. At the time of the assumption of the office, every minister takes the oath of secrecy.

8. Dissolution of the Lower House:
One of the important features of the Indian and British parliamentary government is the right of the council of ministers to dissolve the Lower House of the Parliament.

Features of Indian Parliamentary Government:
Following are the features of Indian Parliamentary System or democracy:
1. Distinction between the Real and the Nominal Executive:
It is the first characteristic of Indian Parliamentary System that it recognises a distinction between the real and the nominal executive. Indian President is only a nominal head, while Council of Ministers is the real executive. No doubt he has been vested with many powers and is empowered to use them in person or through officials subordinate to him. Theory is, however, not practice. He does nothing by doing everything. It is the Cabinet which exercises the powers given to the President. Under the Constitution, he has the right to be informed about the decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation.

He may even exercise his influence over the decisions of the Council of Ministers. But it should be understood that influence is not power. To what extent he can influence the policy of the Cabinet depends upon his personality and his relations, particularly with the Prime Minister. According to 42nd Amendment, President is bound by the advice of the Council of Ministers. But according to 44th Amendment bill, the President may require the Council of Ministers to reconsider any advice tendered by them and that the President shall act in acccordance with the advice tendered after such reconsideration.

2. President remains outside the Cabinet:
Another feature of Indian Parliamentary System is that the President is not a part of the Cabinet and remains outside it. President cannot attend the meetings of the Cabinet. He is only informed of the decisions taken in the meeting.

3. Close relation between the Executive and Legislature:
The Indian Parliamentary System, works on the principle of close relationship between the executive and legislature. On the one hand, in India, the Ministers are entrusted with a portfolio and on the other they are members of either House of Parliament. According to the provision of the Constitution, the President may appoint a person as a Minister for six months even if he is not a member of either House.

Such a Minister will have to quit office if during the period of six months he has not been able to become a member of either House. A minister can be taken from either House the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha. The Cabinet is the connecting link between the executive and the legislature. A Minister, under the Cabinet form of Government, works in a dual capacity.

He is in-charge of one of the departments of the Government. He also shares in the law-making function. Each Minister has a right to sit in either House and take part in its discussions. He can vote in a House of which he is a member. Since each Minister holds charge of a particular department, therefore, he is responsible for the efficient conduct of that department. He is responsible for the acts of his subordinates. He cannot escape responsibility.

4. Leadership of the Prime Minister:
The Council of Ministers is headed by the Prime Minister and not by the President. The President appoints the Prime Minister and, on the advice of the Prime Minister, other ministers are appointed. The Ministers are, thus, the nominees of the Prime Minister and not of the President. Whatever the prejudices of the President, he must accept and endorse the list prepared by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is a team and plays the game of politics under the captaincy of the Prime Minister. Rightly, it has been said that “Government is the master of the Country and Prime Minister is the master of the Government.”

He forms the Cabinet, he can alter it or he can destroy it altogether. He summons the meetings of the Cabinet and presides over them. He exercises complete control over the agenda of the Cabinet. It is he who distributes portfolios among his colleagues. He can re-allocate departments among his colleagues any time he wishes. He can ask any Minister to resign. He can get him dismissed from office by the President.

If a Minister is unable to accept the lead or policy of the Prime Minister it is the Minister who will go. The Prime Minister is the connecting link between the President and the Cabinet. He is also the link between the Council of Ministers and the Parliament. Equally, he is the link between Parliament and the people. The decisions of the Council of Ministers are communicated to the President by the Prime Minister. It is his constitutional right as well as duty.

5. Political Homogeneity:
Another feature of the Indian Parliamentary Government is that the Cabinet is formed on the basis of Political Homogeneity. It works as a unit. However, it can work as a unit only when all ministers in the Council of Ministers are taken from a single political party. The leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha is appointed the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister includes all the big guns of his party in the Council of Ministers. For the efficient working and success of the Cabinet form of Government it is essential that all the ministers in the Council of Ministers must be drawn from a single political party. It is only in this way that the unity of purpose and unity of thought of the Cabinet can be maintained.

Political homogeneity does not mean that the Prime Minister cannot go out of the party rank. To the advantage of the nation or the expediency of his party, he may appoint a person as minister not belonging to his own party. Moreover when coalition government is formed then ministers are taken from the partners of the coalition government.

6. Unity of the Cabinet:
“Cabinet is a unit a unit as regards the sovereign and a unit as regards the legislature.” It means the cabinet is a team. All the ministers come and go together, they stand and fall together. In the meeting of the Cabinet, the Ministers have the right to express their opinions and views freely. But once the Cabinet takes a decision, it commits every minister. Whatever opinion they might have expressed in the meeting of the Cabinet, the decision of the Cabinet is the decision of the whole Council of Ministers.

Every Minister has to support that decision though personally he might have been opposed to it. A Minister, not agreeable to the decision of the Cabinet, must quit. Though all the Ministers do not take part in the formulation of the policy, yet it binds every Minister. Under the Cabinet Government, the ministers are responsible not only for the conduct of their department but also for the policy and performance of all departments of Government. Mistakes committed by one minister may cause the fall of the whole Government.

7. Secrecy:
Proceedings of the Cabinet are confidential; they are not meant for public consumption. No minister can give publicity to the proceedings of the Cabinet. The decision of the Cabinet can be disclosed only by a Minister authorised by the Prime Minister. A minister who indulges in loose talk may invite punishment for himself. At the time of the assumption of the office every minister takes the oath of secrecy.

But from the point of view of efficient administration as well as from the point of unity of the Cabinet, it is imperative that discussion of the Cabinet should not leak out. Otherwise mutual confidence shall not be attained. When a minister resigns on a difference of opinion, under Rule 218 of the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Parliament, he can make a personal explanation to the House without raising a debate.

8. Responsibility of the Cabinet:
The Council of Ministers is responsible to Parliament for its actions and policies. The ministers are required to answer to questions put to them in either House. The Council of Ministers has no fixed term of office. It remains in office so long as it enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha can oust the Council of Ministers from office by passing a resolution of no-confidence in the Council of Ministers by rejecting a Money Bill or rejecting a Government Bill. The members of Parliament can put the Government in the dock by putting questions, supplementaries, adjournment motions, call attentions, etc.

According to the Constitution, the responsibility of the Council of Ministers is collective. As said earlier, collective responsibility means that ministers are responsible for the efficient performance of the department allotted to them as well as for the policy and performance of all departments of Government. No-confidence in one minister means no-confidence in the whole of the Council of Ministers.

9. No fixed term of the Cabinet:
It is another feature of Indian Parliamentary Government that the Cabinet has no fixed tenure. It remains in office only during the pleasure of the Parliament. Only that party which has an absolute majority in the Lok Sabha is asked to form ministry and so long it retains its majority it remains in office. The Cabinet with a majority support cannot be voted out. It is only when the Cabinet loses its majority in the Lok Sabha that it has to resign. Thus the executive depends upon the will of the legislation for its office.

10. Dissolution of the Lok Sabha:
Another important feature of Indian Parliamentary Government is the right of the Prime Minister to dissolve the Lok Sabha. In Dec., 1970, President V.V. Giri dissolved the Lok Sabha on the advice of Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi. In January, 1977, President Ahmed also dissolved the Lok Sabha on the advice of Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi. Similarly, on 6 Feb. 2004, President Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam dissolved the Lok Sabha on the advice of Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee.

Question 3.
Briefly discuss various social and economic factors conditioning Indian democracy.
Or
Examine the social factors which affect the Indian Democracy.
Answer:
Democracy has been adopted in India and every effort has been made to strengthen it. In the preamble India is declared ‘A Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic.’ In the preamble it is mentioned that the aim of the Constitution is to provide social, economic and political justice to all citizens. Adult franchise is introduced in India. In April-May 2019, the number of voters in the election of the 17th Lok Sabha were 90 crores.

The Part III of the Constitution describes Fundamental Rights of the citizens. In Part IV of the Constitution, Directive Principles are mentioned so that economic democracy can be established in India. It has been tried in the Constitution to establish a system of ideal democracy in principle. But in practice, Indian democracy is suffering from various social and economic evils which have proved a curse. These evils are as under:
1. Social and Economic Inequality.
2. Poverty.
3. Illiteracy.
4. Unemployment.
5. Casteism.
6. Untouchability.
7. Communalism.
8. Regional Imbalances.
9. Feudal Values.
10. Social Tension and Violence.

1. Social and Economic Inequality:
To make democracy a success, social and economic equality is essential, social and economic inequality is still found here. All the citizens of society are not treated equally and they are discriminated on the basis of caste, colour, creed and sex. Economic inequality • also exists in India. Some people in India are millionaires while millions don’t get two square meals-a day. People cannot use their rights properly because of social and economic inequality.

2. Poverty:
Most of the people in India are poor. A poor citizen can neither use his rights to vote independently nor can he contest elections.

3. Illiteracy:
About 35 percent of the people in India are illiterate. An illiterate person can neither understand his rights and duties properly nor can he co-operate in solving the problems confronting the country. An illiterate person can’t use his right to vote.

4. Unemployment:
Thousands of educated and uneducated people are unemployed in India. They remain indifferent to democracy and do not take interest in elections.

5. Casteism:
Though all the political parties speak against casteism yet in practice it plays an important role in politics. All the parties give importance to caste in the selection of party candidates in elections and even the voters think in terms of caste while casting their votes.

6. Untouchability:
Though Constitution has abolished untouchability, yet it is prevalent in practice. Atrocities against the Harijans are still committed.

7. Communalism:
Communalism is the greatest hurdle in the success of democracy. The communal feelings lead to clashes which threaten national integrity. Several communal riots took place in India during 1990-91 and in Dec., 1992-93.

8. Regional Imbalances:
India is a vast country and people belonging to various religions and castes live here. Many regions in the country are developed while others are underdeveloped. The standard of living of the people of Himachal Pradesh, U.P., Bihar, Assam and Nagaland is very low than the people of Punjab and Haryana. The regional feeling and regional imbalances pose a great threat to democracy.

9. Feudal Values:
Feudal values still exist in India. Feudal system is traditional and orthodox in which social and economic equality are least important. The members of Indian Administrative Services consider themselves superior to other citizens. The elected representatives and ministers are also victims of feudalism. Rajputs, Thakurs and other people of high castes living in villages hate HarijAnswer: Thus feudal values are antidemocratic.

10. Social Tension and Violence:
Social co-operation and peace are essential for democracy. But in India social tension and violence always exist in one part of the country or the other because of economic inequality and regional feelings.

Conclusion:
If future of Indian democracy is not dark, it is also not very bright. The above mentioned social and economic evils are to be eradicated to brighten the future of democracy.

Question 4.
Write a short note, indicating three main causes of illiteracy in India. Also explain the impact of illiteracy on democracy.
Answer:
Illiteracy is a curse. That person is called illiterate who cannot read or write at all. At the time of independence only 14 per cent people in India were literate. But the progress in literacy is miserably slow. Even today, only about 65 percent people are literate. Illiteracy is widespread among women. Following are the main causes for the illiteracy in India:
1. Poverty:
Poverty is the main cause of illiteracy. According to an estimate 20 to 25 percent people of India are living below the poverty line. During 1990-91 about two crore people were unable to get two square meals a day. It is not possible for a poor man to send his children to school.

2. Over Population:
Over population is another cause of illiteracy. There were about 30 crore people in India after independence. At present population of India is more than 130 crores. Thus, on an average more than one crore people increase every year. It is not possible for an under-developed country like India to provide education to such a huge population.

3. Agricultural country:
India is mainly an agricultural country and more than 70 percent people are dependent on agriculture. Farmers instead of sending their children to school, prefer to send them to the farm.

4. Orthodox customs:
In Indian society, there are many orthodox customs, like spending money on marriages and mundan and other religious ceremonies. Big amount of money is spent on the ceremonies connected with death. Illiterate people spend their money on these orthodox customs and do not realise the importance of literacy in life. Orthodox parents borrow money for the marriage of their daughter and do not prefer to educate her. Thus, illiterate mothers give birth to illiterate society due to orthodox customs.

5. Lack of sufficient funds:
espite the fact that a large number of professional institutions have been set up after independence, still there is lack of sufficient funds to fight a battle against illiteracy. Government is unable to open school in every village and give free primary education. In remote villages, people do not have sources to literate their wards due to inadequate facilities of education.

Impact of Illiteracy on Democracy:
Education is the very basis of good life and it is all dark in the absence of literacy. Democracy survives on the basis of the support from rational minded citizens and rational minded intelligent citizens are prepared through education. But in India seventy per cent people are illiterate. Our survey has established the fact that half of the eighty crores of illiterate people of the world live in India. According to official statistics, about 10 crore of people are illiterate from 15 to 35 years of age.

An uneducated person lacks confidence and possesses no capacity to understand and solve the problems facing the country. He can neither understand his rights nor duties. He can’t safeguard his rights if they are encroached upon unreasonably and at the same time he can’t perform his duties properly. Besides this, an illiterate person has a narrow outlook towards life and believes in casteism, communalism and regionalism.

Because of illiteracy of Indian provincialism, casteism and communalism are widespread in the country these days. In democracy, only public opinion can control the unreasonable tendencies of the government and only out of the fear of unfavourable public opinion the government frames policies for public welfare. But in India, healthy public opinion can’t be developed because of illiteracy.
The ruling party too exploits this weakness of the masses and does not bother to fulfil its promises it held out to the people at the time of elections. An uneducated individual is fascinated by the catching slogans pertaining to religion, caste, language and casts his vote accordingly. So the masses in India should be literate and alert for the success of democracy.

Question 5.
Explain the impact of casteism on Indian Democracy.
Or
Write a short note on casteism in India.
Answer:
Casteism is vital and integral part of Indian society and it has immensely influenced Indian politics. Casteism is still prevalent in Indian society and former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi has expressed deep concern over the rising number of caste-disputes. The politics of all the states in India suffers from the abuse of casteism. Prof. Morris Jones has rightly pointed out that the prominent leaders of the country may raise catching slogans of casteless society, but the new voters of rural areas are acquainted only with casteism. Democracy is deeply affected by casteism in India. The following are ways of casteism:

1. Generally the candidates are selected for election only on the basis of caste. In the election of 2019 almost all the political parties selected their candidates on the basis of caste.
2. Election propaganda is also carried out on the basis of caste.
3. The voters usually cast votes in favour of candidate of their caste.
4. Caste factor is very important in the formation of government.
5. Caste considerations are determining policies and decisions at the national level. Sometimes caste interest gets priority and national interests are ignored.
6. Casteism has led to violence and extremism in Indian politics. There are clashes between the Brahmins and the Sudras, the Shias and the Sunnis weakening of foundation of democracy.

The basis of caste in elections must be removed to make democracy successful in India. Following steps should be taken to eliminate this factor:

• The names of educational institutions referring to castes should be given up.
• All the political parties should decide to discourage casteism.
• The political parties based on caste should be removed from political horizon.
• The facilities provided by government on the basis of caste should be immediately stopped.

Question 6.
Examine the five adverse effects of Communalism on the democratic system of India.
Or
Write a short note on Communalism.
Answer:
Communalism is a legacy of British rule in India. Britishers followed the policy of divide and rule. They introduced Communal Suffrage in 1909. Communalism means discriminatory feelings of an individual against others on the basis of caste and religion. Religion has always influenced Indian politics. Narrow outlook towards religion turned Indian politics into an arena of communal riots before independence.

Hindus and Muslims kept on fighting in the name of religion and it ultimately resulted into India’s partition. But this partition couldn’t eliminate communalism and communal disharmony is growing strong again. In recent years, religious fundamentalism and fanaticism have raised their head again, leading to religious intolerance, riots, ill-will, hatred and even violence. Communalism has affected Indian polices in the following ways:
1. Several political parties in India have been formed on the basis of religion.

2. Communal feelings play a vital role in elections. Generally speaking, almost all the political parties nominate their candidates on the basis of caste and community. This communal basis aims at mustering maximum votes of same caste.

3. Not only political parties but voters are also influenced by religion while casting their votes. Usually, the Muslim or Sikh voters vote in
favour of the candidates belonging to their religion.

4. Communal riots and political clashes take place in the name of religion. About 304 communal riots took place in 1979-80. On Dec. 6, 1992 the three domes of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya were destroyed. There was a country¬wide rioting and within days the rioting left over 1200 dead and 5000 wounded.

Question 7.
Discuss the role of regionalism in Indian Politics.
Or
‘Regionalism is a curse.’ How can it be curbed? Give any four suggestions.
Answer:
Regionalism has played a very important role in Indian politics. Role of Regionalism in politics can be proved thus-
1. The states bargain with the Central Government on the basis of regionalism at times for economic development and to solve many other problems. Haryana state came into being owing to such pressures.

2. The political parties strengthen their stand by sticking to regionalism. The Akali Dal in Punjab and Dravida Munnetra Kazgham in Tamil Nadu turned out to be powerful on the basis of regionalism.

3. The members of cabinet work for the development of their own regions to have their stronghold in future. Shri Bansi Lai did wonders in Bhiwani and Shri Sukhadia dedicated his powers to the development of Udaipur.

4. Regionalism is widely talked of even in elections. The political parties select their candidates on the basis of regionalism and they again try to get votes by provoking the regional sentiments of the people.

5. Regionalism, to some extent, has inflamed violent activities in Indian politics. Some political parties make it a medium of their popularity.

6. Regional tendencies are fully exhibited in the formation of Cabinets. Representatives of different regions quite often are inducted into the cabinet.

In fact, the solution to the problem of regionalism doesn’t lie in the formation of small states, but it depends upon economic development of backward areas, elimination of corruption and to work for the welfare of people.

Regionalism is a curse:
Regionalism has enormously affected Indian politics and democracy. In fact regionalism is a curse because people are so much dominated by regional and provincial sentiments that they are ready to sacrifice national interests for the sake of regional or provincial welfare. Various regional movements have been launched from time to time for secession from Indian Union. Many selfish politicians raised the bogey of a demand for separate statehood in different parts of the country from time to time.

Suggestions to Check Regionalism:

• Progress of Different States: Attempt should be made to have balanced progress of all the States in India.
• Spread of Right Type of Education: In school and colleges such type of education should be imparted which promotes national feelings.
• Secular Politics: Politics should be kept free from the influence of language, caste, religion and region.
• Strict Action: Activities and movements of regionalism and separatists should be curbed by force.
• Minorities’ Interest: Minorities’ interest should be protected and their grievances should be redressed.

Question 8.
What do you understand by Separatism? Describe the causes of emergence of separatism in India.
Answer:
India is a country of diversities. People of different religions, castes, values, customs reside here. They have their different cultures, language and socio-economic status. These diversities lead to separatism. Separatism means to secede from the country and become an independent state. Separatism is an extreme form of regionalism. Following are the reasons that cause separatism in India:
1. Geographical and Cultural Causes:
After independence the states were reorganised on the basis of old boundaries and so the people living in one state couldn’t develop the feeling of oneness. Generally, language and culture lead to regional sentiments. The inhabitants of Tamil Nadu consider their language and culture to be superior to Indian culture. They are very critical of Rama and Ramayan and burnt effigies of Rama and Lakshaman in 1975. They demanded secession from Indian Union in 1960 only on this basis.

2. Historical Causes:
History has contributed to the origin of regionalism doubly i. e. positively and negatively. Origin of Shiv Sena is a proof of positive contribution and Dravida Munnetra Kazgham a negative one.

3. Language:
Norman D. Palmer believes that much of the politics concerns the question of regionalism and language. He opines that problem of regionalism is candidly connected with language. India is a multi-lingual country and people speaking various languages initiated intense movements for separate states. Indian Government, by organising states on linguistic basis, has created a never ending problem.

4. Caste:
Caste, too, has, contributed significantly to the origin of regionalism. Domination of a single caste at a place leads to violent form of regionalism. That is why regionalism is at its worst in Haryana and Maharashtra and is absent in Uttar Pradesh.

5. Religious Causes:
Religion, at times, heightens regionalism. The Akalis’ demand for ‘Punjabi Suba’ was largely the result of religious influence.

6. Economic Causes:
Economic causes play a vital role in the origin of regionalism. There has been an unequal economic development in India because individuals in power paid attention to the development of their own regions. Therefore people belonging to backward areas inspired for power to make some development. So the feeling of regionalism originated and they demanded separate states.

7. Political Causes:
The politicians have a hand in inflaming regional feelings among the people. The politicians think in terms of grabbing power to satisfy their political ambitions in case their areas are declared separate states.

Question 9.
What are the factors responsible for emergence of violence? What threat it poses to democracy?
Answer:
The phenomenon of violence in our country has been widespread for a long time. Violence is a threat to Indian democracy. Communalism, casteism, linguism and separatist tendencies all account for growing violence in our society.
Factors Responsible for emergence of violence. Many factors collectively worked in the favour of violence. The reasons for the emergence of violence are as following:
1. Caste:
Caste system has divided society in many groups. The tendency of upper and lower caste leads to violence. There are clashes between the Brahmins and Shudras, the Shias and the Sunnis. Caste wars have taken a heavy toll on lives in the states of Bihar, Rajasthan, Haryana and Tamil Nadu etc. In December, 1997 the Ranveer Sena, a private army of upper caste Landowners killed about one hundred Dalits at Lakshmanpur in Bihar.

2. Separatist Elements:
Various separatist elements encourage violence. They follow the path of violence and kill innocent people. Pak inspired separatist elements such as Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, Hurriyat Conference, Lashkar-e- Toiba etc. are very active in Kashmir.

3. Linguism: Linguism also causes violence. People of South India opposed Hindi as a national language. This dispute leads to violence.

4. Communalism:
Various communal differences lead to violence. In Meerut, Muradabad, Indore occassionally communal differences has caused violence. Communal riots are encouraged by the political parties.

5. Linguistic State:
The demand of linguistic state leads to violence. In 1952, Telugu speaking people demanded for a separate state. In 1966 Punjab and Haryana were divided on the basis of language.

6. Political Power:
Politics is the root cause of violence. The tendencies such as communalism, Linguism, separatism, casteism are all encouraged by politics. Political leaders for their own personal reasons provoke violent tendencies. To get power they encourage communal wars, caste wars and linguistic wars. Thus, all the tendencies caused by politics encourage violence in society.

7. Terrorist gangs:
Various terrorist gangs are spreading violence in the country. To achieve their aims they kill people and thus encourage violence tendencies in society.

8. Illiteracy:
Violence is spreading because people in large number are illiterate. They are unable to understand the complicated problems of nation and unknowingly encourage violence.

9. Socio-Economic Reasons:
There is a great disparity among people on socio-economic basis. In India, on one hand exists highly influential and rich people and on the other hand poor and illiterate people. This socio-economic disparity causes violence, because to safeguard their existence the poor people adopt the way of violence.

Violence is a serious threat to Indian democracy. Violence weakens the foundation of democracy and gradually people are loosing faith in the constitutional methods which will be dangerous for democracy. Democracy can develop only in a peaceful atmosphere and if violence will remain in the society and people will do what¬ever they think beneficial for them then government will fail to give equal rights and liberty to the people. If government does so then it will be a failure of democracy because it is a system by and for the people.

Question 10.
Examine the different patterns of violence in India.
Or
Analyse the various forms of violence in Indian politics.
Or
To what extent the steps taken have been able to curb it?
Answer:
Violence is becoming a dominant aspect of political life of our country. Although the phenomenon of violence has been with us for long, the decade of the eighties has been quite dismal. By violence we mean the use of physical force including the deployment of bombs, arms, ammunition and other means of inflicting physical injury to human beings and destruction of property. In extreme form, violence may cause death of individuals, either targeted or totally unconnected with the perpetrators of violence. Destruction of property through arson, looting, bombing of buildings and installations etc., also forms part of physical violence.

Forms of violence. There are many forms of violence in India. Some of the major forms of violence are given below:
1. Caste Wars and Caste promoted violence:
In the early time Hindu society was divided into four major castes—Varnas. But with the passage of time four castes (Varnas) have been divided into hundreds of castes. Caste conflicts and caste violence are increasing day by day. Caste wars have often taken a heavy toll of lives in the states of Bihar, Southern part of Uttar Pradesh, Northern part of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Tamil Nadu etc. In December, 1997 the Ranveer Sena, a private army of upper caste landowners, killed about one hundred Dalits at Lakshmanpur in Bihar. There are many other Caste Senas in Bihar.

2. Inter-communal violence:
Inter-communal violence took its most horrible form at the time of partition of India in 1947. Inter-communal riots is increasing day-by-day and the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Kashmir etc. are prone to communal riots.

3. Violence by Terrorist Gangs:
Violence by terrorist organisations is increasing day-by-day. These days terrorist organisations are spreading violence for achieving different objectives in different parts of the country.

4. Violence by Separatist Elements:
Separatist elements follow the path of violence and they oppose the government weapons and killed innocent people. Pak inspired separatist elements have been very active in Punjab and Kashmir for the last many years, Jammu-Kashmir Liberation Front, Harkat-ul- Mujahidden, Lashkar-e-Toiba etc. are very active in Kashmir.

5. Violence by left Insurrectionary Elements:
The ultra-left elements Naxalite spread violence in West Bengal, Andhra, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.

6. Political Violence:
Though political violence has no place in democratic set up but selfish interest of politicians and political parties gave birth to political violence in the country. Political violence is used to achieve political objectives. The political violence is committed by organised gangs or adhoc groups to influence governmental decisions, to settle scores with political opponents and to ventilate the deep-rooted grievances.Violent activities of the north eastern states in India, violence due to the demand for the reorganisation of states etc. are the examples of the political violence.

7. Violence by Interest groups and Professional groups:
Strikes, demonstrations, Bandh etc. resorted to by pressure groups and professional unions sometimes take violent form.

8. Individual or Group Violence:
Individual or group violence committed for personal gains by the anti-social elements and goondas of the society are increasing day-by-day in many cities.

Methods to Curb Violence:
Violence like communalism, casteism, illiteracy, linguism, poverty etc. is an evil and is danger to democracy. The acts of violence are increasing day-by-day. Whatever the form or motive of violence may be, its use is vitiating the democratic atmosphere of our country. Because of the increasing role of violence in the political life of our country, it is generally felt that the politics of our country is being criminalised. In a system where violence prevails, there can be no social, economic and political reconstruction. There is a great need to curb violence because people are losing faith in the constitutional and peaceful methods which will be dangerous for democracy.

Government has enacted a number of laws to curb various types of violence in our country. There is no doubt that caste prompted violence has sufficiently been controlled but it has not been completely eliminated. Caste-wars often take place in various parts of the country and they disturb the democratic equilibrium in India. Same is the case with terrorist related violence. Militancy has been curbed in various parts of the country through different means but the government has failed to eliminate terrorist violence completely. The prevalent political, economic and social circumstances indicate the fact that violence in our country cannot be completely eliminated.

Question 11.
Write down about the problems and challenges to Indian Democracy.
Or
Discuss the main problems of Indian Democracy.
Or
Explain six weaknesses or defects of Parliamentary Democracy in India.
Answer:
No doubt the Constitution established a system of ideal democracy in principle. But in practice Indian democracy is suffering from various social, economic and political evils which have proved a curse. These evils are as under:
1. Social and Economic Inequality:
To make democracy a success social and economic equality is essential, social and economic inequality is still found here. All the citizens of society are not treated equally and they are discriminated on the basis of caste, colour, creed and sex. Economic inequality also exists in India. Some people in India are millionaires while millions don’t get two square meals a day. People cannot use their rights properly because of social and economic inequality.

2. Poverty:
Most of the people in India are poor. A poor citizen can neither use his right to vote independently nor can he contest elections.

3. Illiteracy:
Majority of the people in India are illiterate. An illiterate person can neither understand his rights and duties properly nor can he cooperate in solving the problems confronting the country. An illiterate person can’t use his right to vote properly.

4. Unemployment:
Thousands of educated and uneducated people are unemployed in India. They remain indifferent to democracy and do not take interest in elections.

5. Casteism:
Though all the political parties speak against casteism, yet in practice it plays an important role in politics. All the parties give importance to caste in the selection of party candidates in elections and even the voters think in terms of caste while casting their votes.

6. Communalism:
Communalism is the greatest hurdle in the success of democracy. The communal feeling leads to clashes which threaten national integrity. Several communal riots took place in India during 1992-93.

7. Regional Imbalances:
India is a vast country and people belonging to various religions and castes live here. Many regions in the country are developed while others are underdeveloped. The standard of living of the people of Himachal Pradesh. U.P., Bihar, Assam and Nagaland is very low than the people of Punjab and Haryana. The regional imbalances pose a great threat to democracy.

8. Feudal Values:
Feudal values still exist in India. Feudal system is traditional and orthodox in which social and economic equality are least important. The members of Indian Administrative Services consider themselves superior to other citizens. The elected representatives and ministers are also victims of feudalism. Rajputs, Thakurs and other people of high caste living in villages hate HarijAnswer: Thus feudal values are antidemocratic.

9. Social Tension and Violence:
Social co-operation and peace are essential for democracy. But in India social tension and violence always exist in one part of the country or the other because of economic inequality and regional feelings.

10. Multiple Party System:
Another defect of Indian democracy is the multiple party system. Election Commission recognised seven national political parties and 59 state level parties. Multiple party system poses a threat to Parliamentary form of Government as it endangers national unity. It is not possible to maintain national unity at a critical time because of numerous political parties.

11. Dominance of a Single Party:
Another important defect of Indian democracy is the dominance of Congress. The Congress secured 364, 371, 361 and 283 seats in the elections of 1952, 1957, 1962 and 1967 respectively. The Congress didn’t succeed much in states in the election of 1967, which resulted in the formation of non-Congress ministries in many states. But the non-Congress ministries didn’t avail of this golden opportunity and they
tried to achieve their vested interests instead of serving the people.

Consequently these ministries could not stay for long. Mrs. Indira Gandhi held mid-term poll in 1971 and Congress swept the elections and it secured 352 seats in Lok Sabha. Out of 19 States, elections were held in eight states and Congress secured majority in all the eight states. Due to the dominance of Congress party, some preceptive students of Indian politics have expressed the view that India has a ‘One party dominance system’ (Rajni Kothari) or ‘One dominant party system.’ (W.H. Morris Jones).

In 1977, with the formation of Janata Party, the monopoly of the Congress party ended for a short period. But in the elections of January 1980 and Dec. 1984, Congress (I) won big majority in the Lok Sabha. There was no official opposition in the Lok Sabha. But the dominance of Congress came to an end in November, 1989 when the Congress was badly mauled in the 9th General elections and the other parties entered the 9th Lok Sabha with sufficient strength. It was repeated from 1991 to 2019 elections of Lok Sabha. The present position clearly indicates that the era of one party dominant system has come to an end.

12. Lack of Effective Opposition: Another problem of Indian democracy is lack of organised opposition as it exists in England.

13. Less Contact with the Masses:
Another defect of Indian democracy is that the legislators do not maintain proper contact with the masses. The leaders of the political parties realise the importance of public contact during the elections but they forget it as soon as the elections end. According to Dr. P.V.C. Rao, no political party except Communist party claims to have direct contact with the masses.

14. Defections:
Indian democracy is known for defections. Defection is posing a threat to Parliamentary Democracy in India. There are many examples of defections from first to fourth general elections but the number of defections after the fourth general elections increased so much that parliamentary form of government seemed to be an utter failure in India.

Question 12.
Discuss the effects of violence and population explosion on Indian Democracy.
Answer:
1. Violence:
Though political violence has no place in democratic set up but selfish interest of politicians and political parties gave birth to political violence in the country. Political violence is used to achieve political objectives. The political violence is committeed by organised gangs or adhoc groups to influence governmental decisions, to settle scores with political opponents and to ventilate the deep-rooted grievances. Violent activities of the north eastern states in India, violence due to the demand for the reorganisation of states etc. are the examples of the political violence.

2. Population explosion:
Population explosion is another problem of Indian Democracy. There were about 30 crore people in India after independence. At present population of India is more than 130 crores. Thus, on an average more than one crore people increase every year. It is not possible for an under-developed country like India to provide education and food to such a huge population.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by Parliamentary government?
Answer:
In a parliamentary government there is a close relationship between the legislature and the executive. The Cabinet (Executive) is the real executive and it is responsible to the legislature for its functions and policies. The Cabinet can remain in office as long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature. If legislature passes a vote of no confidence then cabinet has to resign. Parliamentary government is also called responsible government because government is responsible to the legislature. It is also known as Cabinet form of government because in this form of government executive powers are exercised by the Cabinet.

Question 2.
Discuss any four characteristics of Parliamentary System.
Answer:
Following are the three main features of parliamentary government:
1. Head of the State is a Nominal Executive:
In a parliamentary form of government executive powers are vested with the Head of the State but it is only in theory and in practice all these powers are exercised by the real executive. Head of the State is a nominal head and he always acts on the advice of the council of ministers.

2. Close Relation between the Executive and the Legislature:
All members of the cabinet are the members of the legislature. They attend the meetings of the legislature and they answer those questions which are put to them by the members of the legislature.

3. Responsibility of the Cabinet:
Cabinet is collectively responsible to the legislature for its policies and functions. If a vote of no-confidence is passed by the legislature against the Cabinet then the Cabinet must resign.

4. The Council of Ministers is headed by the Prime Minister and not by the President.

Question 3.
Explain any four characteristics of a Parliamentary Government in India.
Answer:

1. President is only a nominal head whereas Prime Minister is the real head of the government. All the powers vested in the President are exercised by the council of ministers.
2. Another feature of Indian Parliamentary system is that the President is not a part of the cabinet and he remains outside it.
3. One more feature of Indian Parliamentary system is that the Cabinet has no fixed tenure.
4. In India Cabinet is collectively responsible to the Parliament.

Question 4.
Who is the Real Executive in India?
Answer:
Indian President is only a nominal head, while Council of Ministers is the real executive. It is the Cabinet which exercises the power given to the President. According to 42nd Amendment, President is bound by the advice of the Council of Ministers. But according to 44th Amendment, the President may require the Council of Ministers to reconsider any advice tendered by them and that the President shall act in accordance with the advice tendered after reconsideration.

Question 5.
Write down about Nominal Executive in India.
Answer:
Indian President is only a Nominal Executive head, while Council of Ministers is the real executive. No doubt, he has been vested with many powers and is empowered to use them in person or through officials subordinate to him. Theory is, however, not practice. He does nothing by doing everything. It is the Cabinet which exercises the powers given to the President.

Under the Constitution, he has the right to be informed about the decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation. He may even exercise his influence over the decision of the Council of Ministers but it should be understood that influence is not power. To what extent he can influence the policy of the Cabinet depends upon his personality and his relations, particularly with the Prime Minister.

Question 6.
Mention four demerits of Indian Parliamentary System.
Answer:
1. Multiple Party System:
For the success of parliamentary system two party system is the best. But in India multiple party system exists. Due to multi-party system coalition govt, and weak govt, is formed at the Centre.

2. Defections: Defection is another drawback of Indian Parliamentary System.

3. Indiscipline: Indiscipline among the members of Parliament is another demerit of the Indian parliamentary system.

4. Communalism is the greatest hurdle in the success of Indian Parliamentary system.

Question 7.
How does Economic inequality influence Indian Democracy?
Answer:
Economic inequality exists in India. Some people in India are millionaires while millions don’t get a square meal a day. A poor citizen can neither use his right to vote independently nor can he contest election. The poor man sells his vote. Poverty adversely affects working of democracy in India.

Question 8.
How has illiteracy affected Indian democracy?
Or
How does the illiteracy affect Indian Democracy?
Answer:
In India 47 per cent people are illiterate. One survey has established the fact that half of the eighty crore of illiterate people of the world lives in India. According to official statistics, about 10 crore of people are illiterate from 15 to 35 years of age. An uneducated person lacks confidence and possesses no capacity to understand and solve the problems facing the country. He can neither understand his rights nor duties.

He can’t safeguard his rights if they are encroached upon unreasonably and at the same time he can’t perform his duties properly. Besides this, an illiterate person has a narrow outlook towards life and believes in casteism, communalism and regionalism. Because of illiteracy of Indians, provincialism, casteism and communalism are widespread in the country these days.

Question 9.
Why is Communalism considered a serious problem for Indian Democracy?
Or
Write the effects of Communalism on Indian Democracy.
Answer:
Communalism has affected the Indian democracy in the following manner:

• Several political parties in India have been formed on the basis of religion.
• Communal feelings play a vital role in elections. Almost all the political parties field their candidates on the basis of caste and community.
• Voters are also influenced by religion while casting their votes. Generally the Muslim or Sikh voters vote in favour of the candidates belonging to their religion.
• Communal riots and political clashes take place in the name of religion.

Question 10.
How has poverty been a threat to the working of democracy in India?
Or
What is the impact of poverty on Indian Democracy?
Answer:
Working of Indian democracy has been adversely affected by poverty of the masses. The poor citizen cannot develop physically and mentally as he can’t get a square meal a day. He remains worried about earning his livelihood and has no time to think over the problems facing the country. A poor person does not even think about the elections. He can’t even use his right to vote independently. He can’t cast his vote against his employer. During elections the rich distribute blankets, cycles, sewing machines and other things among the poor so that they can get the votes of the poor. The poor person sells even his vote. Every political party tries to take political advantage of the people’s poverty.

Question 11.
What is the effect of casteism on Indian Democracy?
Or
How Casteism affects Indian democracy?
Answer:
Indian democracy is deeply affected by casteism. Casteism has affected the Indian democracy in the following ways:
1. Selection of Candidates on the basis of Caste:
Caste considerations are given great weight in the selection of candidates. Generally a candidate of that caste is fielded which dominates a particular constituency. All the political parties attach great importance to casteism while selecting their candidates in the general elections.

2. Election Propaganda:
Caste plays a vital role in election propaganda. Victory or defeat of a candidate largely depends upon caste based propaganda.

3. Casteism has led to violence and extremism.

4. Formation of Government: Caste plays a significant role even in the formation of government. Caste politics carries on its process in the formation of cabinet. Generally a state has its Chief Minister belonging to a caste enjoying majority in the state.

Question 12.
Mention four social, political factors which affect the Indian democracy.
Answer:

• Multi-Party System: In India Multi-Party System exists. Due to this, Government becomes unstable.
• Illiteracy: An illiterate person cannot use properly his right to vote.
• Casteism: The increasing role of casteism is polluting Indian Democracy.
• Unemployment: Unemployed people remain indifferent to democracy and do not take interest in election.

Question 13.
Which of the social factors influence Indian democracy?
Answer:
Indian democracy is suffering from various social evils which have proved a curse. These social evils are as under:

• • Social and economic inequality.
  • Illiteracy
  • Casteism.
  • Unemployment.

Question 14.
How do the prevailing social inequalities affect democracy in India?
Answer:

1. Social inequality has increased despair and discontent among the people. People of low castes many times demanded protection through movements. Women also held demonstrations to improve their social status.
2. The violent activities of the Naxalites were the result of social inequality.
3. The attitude of the people has become narrow because of social inequality. Every class thinks in terms of its own interest and not of national interest.
4. The upper castes have their monopoly established in administration.

Question 15.
Explain the meaning of the term ‘Regional Imbalance’ -and give any two causes thereof.
Answer:
Regional Imbalance means vast disparities in standard of living of people between one region and the other region. Following factors are responsible for Regional Imbalance:

• Benefits of planning do not reach every region.
• The geographical factors are also responsible for the backwardness of some regions.

Question 16.
Suggest any four measures to remove Regional Imbalance which you think can be implemented by the Govt, of India.
Answer:

• There is need of preparing different programmes for the development of different areas.
• Development programmes should be taken up with the support and cooperation of the people.
• Benefits of planning should reach every person and all areas.
• In school and colleges such type of education should be imparted which promotes national feelings.

Question 17.
Write about the hindrances which come in the way of success of Indian Parliamentary democracy.
Answer:

• Social and economic inequality is the major hindrance in the smooth functioning of democracy in India.
• Poverty is another hindrance. Most of the people in India are poor.
• Majority of the people in India are illiterate.
• The regional imbalances pose a great threat to democracy.

Question 18.
Give any three suggestions to solve the problems of Indian democracy.
Answer:

• • Economic inequality should be minimised.
  • Social equality should be established.
  • Illiteracy should be removed. Steps should be taken for mass education.
  • Democracy cannot flourish best without the freedom of press. The government should not impose restrictions on newspapers.

Question 19.
What is meant by Collective Responsibility under Parliamentary Government?
Or
What do you mean by Collective Responsibility?
Or
What do you mean by collective responsibility of executive in Indian Parliamentary System?
Answer:
In a parliamentary government the council of ministers is collectively responsible to the parliament for its actions and policies. Collective responsibility means that ministers are responsible for the efficient performance of the departments allotted to them as well as for the policy and performance of all departments of government. No confidence in one minister means no confidence in the whole of council of ministers.

The council of ministers works as a unit. All the ministers stand and fall together. The decisions of the cabinet are binding on all the ministers. It is immaterial even if any minister is opposed to the decision which has emerged at the cabinet meeting. No minister can run his department as he wishes. He must work in unity with his colleagues. It is the only way by which the principle of collective responsibility can be enforced.

Question 20.
Give economic factors influencing Indian Government.
Answer:
1. Majority of the people in India are poor:
Poor people are worried about their meals and have no time to think about the problems of the country. A poor person can neither contest election nor even vote independently. The poor man sells his vote. Poverty adversely affects the working of democracy in India.

2. In India more than 4 crore people are unemployed:
Unemployment has greatly affected Indian democracy. An unemployed person does not care for his rights and performance ‘of his duty. He readily even sells his vote.

3. Economic inequality is an important hinderance in the working of Indian democracy.

4. Some people in India are millionaires while millions do not get two square meals a day.

Question 21.
Describe the effects of unemployment on Indian democracy.
Answer:

1. Unemployed persons are so much involved in their own problems that they have no time to ponder over problems facing the society and the country.
2. An unemployed person does not care for his rights and performance of his duties. He readily sells even his vote.
3. The character of the citizens has also declined because of unemployment. It has resulted in dishonesty, corruption and theft. An unemployed person is prepared to resort to immoral means to get a job.
4. Unemployment has led to violence in Indian politics.

Question 22.
Write down three problems of Indian Democracy.
Or
Write down four main problems of Indian Democracy.
Answer:
1. Poverty:
Most of the people in India are poor. A poor citizen can neither use his right to vote independently nor can he contest election.

2. Dliteracy:
24% of Indian population in India is illiterate. An illiterate person can neither understand his rights and duties properly nor can he cooperate in solving the problems confronting the country. An illiterate person can’t use his right to vote.

3. Unemployment:
Thousands of educated and uneducated people are unemployed in India. They remain indifferent to democracy and do not take interest in elections.

4. Communalism:
Communalism is another problem of Indian democracy. The communal feelings lead to clashes which threaten National Integrity.

Question 23.
How do Regional imbalances affect Indian Polity? Explain.
Answer:
All the regions in India are not on equal footing, rather sharp diversities are found and hence the problem of regional imbalance exists. Regional imbalances have greatly affected Indian democracy.

• Regional imbalance creates a psychological tension among the people of different regions. People belonging to various regions develop an attitude of laying much stress on regional interests ignoring the national interest.
• Many political parties have been formed under the spell of regionalism.
• The voters cast their votes under the urge of regionalism and don’t bother about national interests.
• Regional imbalance creates tensions between centre and states.

Question 24.
Mention any three conditions essential for the success of Indian Democracy.
Or
Write down four conditions necessary for the success of democracy.
Answer:

• Enlightened citizenship is very essential to strengthen democratic traditions.
• Education is very essential to strengthen democratic traditions. Education makes people responsible and responsive.
• Political consciousness among the people is very essential for the success of democracy.
• Economic equality is very essential for the success of democracy.

Question 25.
What is meant by the term Political Homogeneity?
Answer:
Political Homogeneity is one of the important features of Parliamentary form of government. In Parliamentary form of government ministers are taken from that party which has majority in the Lower House of the Parliament. In this system all ministers work as a unit. Because they belong to a single party, so question of arising differences among members of the council of ministers is very nominal. Notable thing is that in a coalition government Political Homogeneity is not quite possible. That is why coalition governments are not stable.

Question 26.
How is linguism a danger to India?
Answer:
Linguism means the influence and impact of the factor of language. The factor of language has added another fissiparous tendency in the Indian body politic and it is influencing our democracy in the following ways:

• The factor of language is an emotive issue. Because of its emotional nature it has given rise to lingual fanaticism in some parts of our country.
• Linguism is a threat to unity of country.
• The opposition to Hindi as the official language of the Indian Union is causing bitterness between the Hindi and the non-Hindi speaking people of our country.
• The problem of language is responsible for the rise of regionalism in our country.

Question 27.
What is meant by ‘Regionalism’?
Answer:
Regionalism in the ordinary usage refers to particularism of regional patriotism. Regionalism is derived from the word ‘region’. A region is a homogeneous area with physical and cultural characteristics distinct from those of other areas. Whereas Communalism means the love of the Community in preference to nation, regionalism means the love of a particular region in preference to the country and in certain cases, in preference to the state of which the region is a part. This feeling may arise due to continuous neglect of the region by the ruling authorities. It may also spring up as a result of increasing political awareness of the henceforth backward people that they have so far been discriminated against.

Question 28.
How does regionalism come in the way of bringing about unity in diversity?
Answer:
Regionalism hampers the growth of unity in diversities in the following ways

1. It encourages the growth of fissiparous and divisive tendencies in the society and thus the cause of unity in diversities receives a serious setback.
2. Regional loyalties overwhelm individuals so much that they forget their obligation towards the nation as a whole and prefer their regional interests to national interests.
3. Regionalism sometimes takes the form of communalism or linguism which hampers the path of unity among diversities.
4. Regionalism, to some extent, has inflamed violent activities in Indian politics.

Question 29.
What are the two bases of separatist tendencies in India today?
Answer:
The bases of separatist tendencies in India are:
1. Communalism:
Communalism is the greatest hurdle in the success of democracy. The communal feelings lead to clashes which threaten national integrity. Religion has always influenced Indian politics.

2. Casteism:
Caste has always been a significant and decisive factor in Indian politics. Though all the political parties speak against casteism yet in practice it plays an important role in politics. All the parties give importance to caste in the selection of party candidates in elections and even the voters think in terms of caste while casting their votes.

Question 30.
Describe the impact of violence on Indian democracy.
Answer:
Violence is becoming a dominant aspect of political life of our country. Its effects on Indian democracy are:

1. The violent atmosphere stifles the voice of truth. Because of the fear of violence a great majority of political leaders even do not express the voice of their conscience.
2. The democractic institutions work under the fear of violence. Elections do take place but in many cases, the results thereof do not represent the real will of the voters.
3. Violence is a threat to Election Process also.
4. Political parties do not work independently, rather sometimes they are constrained to take decisions to appease the perpetrators of violence.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is Parliamentary model of government?
Answer:
In a parliamentary government there is a close relationship between the legislature and the executive. The Cabinet (Executive) is the real executive and it is responsible to the legislature for its functions and policies. The Cabinet can remain in office as long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature. If legislature passes a vote of no confidence then cabinet has to resign.

Question 2.
Discuss any two characteristics of Parliamentary System.
Answer:
Following are the three main features of parliamentary government:
1. Head of the State is a Nominal Executive:
In a parliamentary form of government executive powers are vested with the Head of the State but it is only in theory and in practice all these powers are exercised by the real executive. Head of the State is a nominal head and he always acts on the advice of the council of ministers.

2. Close Relation between the Executive and the Legislature:
All members of the cabinet are the members of the legislature. They attend the meetings of the legislature and they answer those questions which are put to them by the members of the legislature.

Question 3.
Discuss any two characteristics of a Parliamentary Government in India.
Answer:

1. 1. President is only a nominal head whereas Prime Minister is the real head of the government. All the powers vested in the President are exercised by the council of ministers.
   2. Another feature of Indian Parliamentary system is that the President is not a part of the cabinet and he remains outside it.

Question 4.
Write down about Nominal Executive in India.
Answer:
Indian President is only a Nominal Executive head, while Council of Ministers is the real executive. It is the Cabinet which exercises the powers given to the President. Under the Constitution, he has the right to be informed about the decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation.

Question 5.
Mention two demerits of Indian Parliamentary System.
Answer:

• Multiple Party System: For the success of parliamentary system two party system is the best. But in India multiple party system exists. Due to multi-party system coalition govt, and weak govt, is at the Centre.
• Defections: Defection is another drawback of Indian Parliamentary System.

Question 6.
How does economic inequality influence Indian Democracy?
Answer:
Economic inequality exists in India. Some people in India are millionaires while millions don’t get a square meal a day. A poor citizen can neither use his right to vote independently nor can he contest election. The poor man sells his vote. Poverty adversely affects working of democracy in India.

Question 7.
How has illiteracy affected Indian democracy?
Answer:
An uneducated person lacks confidence and possesses no capacity to under-stand and solve the problems facing the country. He can neither understand his rights nor duties. He can’t safeguard his rights if they are encroached upon unreasonably and at the same time he can’t perform his duties properly.

Question 8.
Write any two ill-effects of communalism on Democracy.
Or
Write any two impacts of communalism on Indian Democracy.
Answer:
Communalism has affected the Indian democracy in the following manner:

• Several political parties in India have been formed on the basis of religion.
• Communal feelings play a vital role in elections. Almost all the political parties field their candidates on the basis of caste and community.

Question 9.
Write any two effects of Poverty on Indian Democracy.
Answer:
1. Working of Indian democracy has been adversely affected by poverty of the masses. The poor citizen cannot develop physically and mentally as he can’t get a square meal a day. He remains worried about earning his livelihood and has no time to think over the problems facing the country.

2. A poor person does not even think about the elections. He can’t even use his right to vote independently. He can’t cast his vote against his employer.

Question 10.
What is the effect of casteism on Indian Democracy?
Answer:
1. Selection of Candidates on the basis of Caste:
Caste considerations are given great weight in the selection of candidates. Generally a candidate of that caste is fielded which dominates a particular constituency. All the political parties attach great importance to casteism while selecting their candidates for the general elections.

2. Election Propaganda:
Caste plays a vital role in election propaganda. Victory or defeat of a candidate largely depends upon caste based propa-ganda.

Question 11.
Mention two social, political factors which affect the Indian democracy.
Answer:

• Multi-Party System: In India Multi-Party System exists. There are national as well as regional parties.
• Illiteracy: An illiterate person cannot use properly his right to vote.

Question 12.
Which of the social evils influence Indian democracy?
Answer: Indian democracy is suffering from various social evils which have proved a curse. These social evils are as under:

• • Social and economic inequality.
  • Illiteracy
  • Casteism.
  • Unemployment.

Question 13.
Write down any four methods to stop Communalism.
Answer:
Following suggestions can prove helpful in this direction:
1. Right Type of Education:
Communalism is a mental malady and hence needs a mental remedy. Through well designed text-books, articles the student at different levels should be taught the feeling of toleration, love, harmony, brotherhood and peace.

2. Right use of Media:
T.V., Radio and media should use their power in right direction. Instead of covering the incident to create communal feeling these should deliver the message of love, harmony, brotherhood, unity and integrity, peace etc.

3. Decommunalisation of Political Parties:
Political parties should be decommunalised. Election Commission should not recognize any political party that is based on religion and spreads communal feelings.

4. Positive and Active Role of Government:
The government should play an active and positive role in this direction. The government should try to root out the causes of communalism before its root gets too deep to cut out.

Question 14.
Describe any two conditions essential for the success of Democracy in India.
Answer:

• Enlightened citizenship is very essential to strengthen democratic traditions.
• Education is very essential to strengthen democratic traditions. Education makes people responsible and responsive.

Question 15.
Write any two types of separatism.
Answer:

• Ethnic Separatism.
• Religious Separatism.

Question 16.
Write any two economic factors effecting the democracy.
Answer:

• Poverty: Poverty is an important factor effecting democracy.
• Economic Inequality: Economic inequality is another factor, effecting democracy.

One Line Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you know about Parliamentary System?
Answer:
Parliamentary Government is that system of governance wherein the real executive or the cabinet is responsible to Legislature or its Popular House.

Question 2.
What is meant by nominal executive?
Answer:
Nominal executive means that executive which has been given all the executive powers by the Constitution, but in reality, it does not exercise any of these powers.

Question 3.
What do you mean by the Real Executive?
Or
Who is the Real Executive in India?
Answer:
The real executive is that executive which exercises executive powers in reality. The Prime Minister and Cabinet of India is an example of the real executive.

Question 4.
Mention any one feature of Parliamentary System.
Answer:
1. Parliamentary System has two kinds of executive nominal and real.
Answer:
1952

2. Every person who is a citizen of India and who is not less than ……………. years of age has the right to exercise his vote.
Answer:
Eighteen

3. Sayyad Kazi and Shibban Lai Saxena supported the ……………. form of govt, in Consrtituent Assembly.
Answer:
Presidential

4. K.M. Munshi and Krishna Swami Ayyer supported the ……………. form of govt. in Consrtituent Assembly.
Answer:
Parliamentary

5. There is a close relation between ……………. and legislature in parliamentary form of govt.
Answer:
Executive

6. There is a difference between Nominal Executive and ……………. Executive in Parliamentary form of govt.
Answer:
Real.

True Or False Statement

1. Increasing Literacy is one of the main challenges to Indian Democracy.
Answer:
False

2. In Parliamentary System, Head of the State is Real Executive.
Answer:
False

3. Article 21-A, under 86th Amendment of Constitution provides free and compulsory education.
Answer:
True

4. Criminalisation of politics is becoming a dominant aspect of political life of our country.
Answer:
True

5. Social Inequality has greatly affected India democracy.
Answer:
True

6. Poverty is not a main curse of illiteracy.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Main challenges of Indian Democracy are:
(a) Poverty
(b) Illiteracy
(c) Unemployment
(d) All of the above.
Answer:
(d) All of the above.

Question 2.
Main reason of poverty in India is:
(a) Increased Population
(b) Education
(c) Development
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(a) Increased Population

Question 3.
Regionalism means:
(a) Love for the Nation
(b) Loyalty for Religion
(c) Love for a Region
(d) Loyalty for Caste.
Answer:
(c) Love for a Region

Question 4.
Which is the main reason of illiteracy in India?
(a) British imperialism
(b) Lock of industry
(c) Lock of sufficient funds
(d) Violent activities of Naxalities.
Answer:
(c) Lock of sufficient funds

Punjab State Board PSEB 10th Class Agriculture Book Solutions Chapter 5 Plantation of New Orchards Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class10 Agriculture Chapter 5 Plantation of New Orchards

Agriculture Guide for Class 10 PSEB Plantation of New Orchards Textbook Questions and Answers

(A) Answer in one-two words:

Question 1.
How much is the area of the fruits under Punjab?
Answer:
76500 hectare.

Question 2.
Name the insecticide used to control the termite attack.
Answer:
Mix 30 gram lindaneror 15 milli litre chloropyriphos 20 EC in 2.5 kg soil per pit to protect the plants from termites.

Question 3.
Name two recommended peach cultivars.
Answer:
Flordaprince, Partap.

Question 4.
Give the number of planting system for the plantation of new orchards.
Answer:
Three systems-square, filler, hexagonal system.

Question 5.
What is the time for plantation of deciduous frujj; trees?
Answer:
Mid January to mid February.

Question 6.
Give the suitable time for the plantation of mango and litchi orchards.
Answer:
September-October.

Question 7.
Give the time of application of FYM to the orchards. Or In which month farmyard manure (FYM) should be added to fruit plants?
Answer:
2-3 months before the initiation of new growth, generally in the month of December.

Question 8.
Write the name of two recommended amla cultivars.
Answer:
Balwant, Neelam, Kanchan.

Question 9.
What is the pit size for the plantation of fruit crops?
Answer:
One metre deep.

Question 10.
Name the fruit trees recommended for cultivation in district Amritsar.
Answer:
Pears, grapes, mango, guava, peach, kinnow and other mandarins, lemon etc.

(B) Answer in one-two sentences:

Question 1.
Which kind of soil is suitable for plantation of fruit trees?
Answer:
Well drained, deep loamy and fertile soil is required for planting of orchard. There should be no hard pan upto depth of 2 m.

Question 2.
Name the fruit trees recommended for cultivation in sub- mountainous zone.
Answer:
Guava, mango, litchi, pears, kinnow and other mandarins, lemon, peach, plums, chikoo (sapota), gooseberry (amla) etc.

Question 3.
Name the fruit trees recommended for cultivation in arid- irrigated zone.
Answer:
Malta, lemon, kinnow and other mandarins, ber, grapes, guava etc.

Question 4.
Define evergreen fruit trees with suitable examples.
Answer:
These plants have leaves throughout the year and are always green examples-Loquat, guava, mango, litchi, kinnow and other mandarins, sweet orange, lime, sapota etc.

Question 5.
Define deciduous fruit trees with suitable examples.
Answer:
These plants completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. Example-Pears, grapes, peach, plums.

Question 6.
What is square system of planting?
Answer:
This is a system of planting orchards in which row spacing and plant spacing are kept same. Plants are at right angle tb each other and nearby four plants of two rows form a square.

Question 7.
What is the irrigation interval for the fruit trees?
Answer:
Younger plants should be irrigated at weekly intervals from March to June upto 3-4 years. Then from November to February at intervals of 2-3 weeks and from July to November depending upon rainfall and soil type, irrigation should be applied.

Question 8.
What is the depth of water table for successful cultivation of orchards?
Answer:
Underground water should be lower than 3 m of depth and there should be no fluctuation in this level.

Question 9.
What do you mean by Filler system of planting the fruit trees?
Answer:
Some of the fruit plants like litchi, mango, pears start giving fruits after long time (late bearing). Some plants which are temporary are planted in the orchard, which bear fruits in short interval of time. These act as filler plant. When main fruit plants come to bearing then these filler plants are removed.

Question 10.
From where the nursery plants should be purchased?
Answer:
Healthy, vigorous, insect free, disease free and of known pedigree, good variety plants should be taken from some reliable nursery, if possible, should be taken from PAU Ludhiana, from the department of Horticulture and from government approved nurseries.

(C) Answer in five-six sentences:

Question 1.
What points should be kept in mind while purchasing the fruit plants from nursery?
Answer:

• Fruit plants which are free from insects and diseases should be selected from the nursery.
• Plants should be healthy, vigorous and of medium height budded or grafted on suitable rootstock.
• Lift the evergreen plants in such a way that they carry roots with them and are covered with well sized earthen balls.
• Take care that grafting.is done on the original plant. Union should be smooth and should not be high.
• Before transplanting remove the Tying material.
• Purchase 10% more plants from the requirement, these can be used to fill the gap created due to death of some plants.

Question 2.
Describe the various planting system of orchards in detail.
Answer:
There are three system of planting orchards:
(i) Square pattern
(ii) Filler pattern
(iii) Hexogonal pattern.

(i) Square system:
In this layout method plant rows are equally spaced. Plants are at right angle to each other. In this system four plants opposite to each other form a square. This is the most commonly followed system in Punjab. Orchards planted in this layout give fruits for long time and in the initial phase when orchards are not giving income, the layout permits intercropping and one can get income from this cultivation of crops.

(ii) Filler system:
Some of the fruit plants like, litchi, mango, pears etc. start, bearing after long time. In such orchards some short lived plants are planted, these come to bear earlier than main plants. These are called filler plants. After few years when main trees come to bearing then these filler plants should be removed.

(iii) Hexagonal system:
In this system row spacing is less than the plant spacing but plant to plant spacing is always same. In this layout, 15 to 20% more plants can be planted. To prevent the problem of entangling branches of different trees, should be trimmed and pruned properly.

Question 3.
Why the training and pruning of fruit trees is necessary?
Answer:
Fruit plants need a proper structure and appearance which should be given at younger age. This is done by careful training. Proper appearance and structure is necessary so that plants can get proper sunlight and proper ventilation. This helps in getting better yield and high quality fruits and this also increases the age of tree.

Deciduous fruit plants like grapes, pears, peach, plums etc. which are planted in Punjab are prunned for the first four to five years. When plants come to bearing, plants are trimmed so as to get better yield and high quality fruits. Prusing is necessary to remove non productive parts, diseased, dried, crisscrossed and broken branches. This helps in regulating the fruit crop of better quality and productivity in also improved.

Question 4.
What points should be kept in mind while harvesting the fruits?
Answer:
1. Some standards or certain maturity indices should be followed and maintained while harvesting fruits e.g. some of the fruits can be harvested before proper maturity e.g. mango, banana, plums etc. But grapes, litchi etc. can not be ripened after harvesting. Standards should be set and maintained according to the fruit.

2. Never pull the fruit from the branch. This may cause the branch to break or the fruit skin near the stem end can be ruptured.

3. Grade fruits harvested into 3-4 sizes. Pack these in the card- board boxes, poly nets, crates after grading.

4. Do not pack the fruits which are unripe, more ripe, small, irregular shaped, damaged and injured.

Question 5.
Write down a short note on the use of fertilizers in orchards.
Answer:
We have to dig a pit before planting fruit trees. This pit is refilled with a mixture of top soil and well rotten farmyard manure in equal part. Vegetative growth of fruit plants take place in the months of February to April. During their growth, plants must get all the nutrients. Therefore apply farmyard manure before 2-3 months before the initation of new growth.

FYM is usually applied in the month of December. Nitrogen fertilizer is applied in two parts. One at the before flowering and one at the time of fruit set. Phosphorus should be applied with the first dose of nitrogen. Apply potash before the maturity of fruits so that fruits are of good quality. Use broadcast method to apply fertilizers of main nutrients. Apply micronutrient fertilizers only if deficiency of these nutrients is found.

PSEB 10th Class Agriculture Guide Plantation of New Orchards Important Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1.
Nutrients we get from fruits are:
(a) vitamins
(b) minerals
(c) protein
(d) All.
Answers:
(d) All.

Question 2.
When evergreen plants are sown?
(a) February-March
(b) September-October
(c) Both correct
(d) None.
Answers:
(b) September-October

Question 3.
Planting system for establishing orchards.
(a) square
(b) filler
(c) hexagonal
(d) All.
Answers:
(d) All.

Question 4.
…………….is not an evergreen fruit plant.
(a) Pears
(b) Loquat
(c) Mango
(d) Litchi.
Answers:
(a) Pears

Question 5.
Deciduous fruit plants are:
(a) grapes
(b) peach
(c) plums
(d) All.
Answers:
(d) All.

Question 6.
Evergreen fruit plants are:
(a) Mango
(b) Litchi
(c) Lime
(d) All.
Answers:
(d) All.

Question 7.
In which month autumn fruit plants are sown?
(a) April-May
(b) January-February
(c) June-July
(d) May-June.
Answers:
(b) January-February

Question 8.
Which district of Punjab is located in sub-mountainous zone?
(a) Bathinda
(b) Amritsar
(c) Roopnagar
(d) Chandigarh.
Answers:
(c) Roopnagar

True False:

1. Partap is a variety of peach.
Answers:
True

2. Kanchan is a variety of Amla.
Answers:
True

3. Fruits should not be pulled from the branches during harvesting.
Answers:
True

4. Fruit crop is a long term investment.
Answers:
True

5. There are three planting system for new orchards.
Answers:
True

Fill in the blanks:

1. ………… plants are planted from mid january to mid February.
Answers:
Deciduous

2. W. Murcott is a recommended cultivar of ………………… fruit.
Answers:
Mandarin (orange)

3. Cricket ball is a cultivar of …………….. .
Answers:
Spota

4. Ganesh is a eultivar of ……………… .
Answers:
Pomegranate

5. Early Grande in a cultivar of …………… .
Answers:
Peach.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Which nutrients are found in fruits?
Answer:
Fruits contain proteins, minerals, vitamins etc.

Question 2.
How many zones are there in Punjab on the basis of climate?
Answer:
Three zones.

Question 3.
How many types of fruit plants are there based on their time of planting?
Answer:
Two types.

Question 4.
Give examples of evergreen fruit plants.
Answer:
Mango, litchi, citrus, chicoo (spota) etc.

Question 5.
Give examples of deciduous fruit plants.
Answer:
Pears, grapes, peach, plums etc.

Question 6.
What is suitable time for planting evergreen fruit plants?
Answer:
February to March, September to October.

Question 7.
What is the time for planting orchards of Mango and Litchi?
Answer:
September-October.

Question 8.
What is the time for planting deciduous plants?
Answer:
In winter when these are in dormant stage.

Question 9.
What is time of planting peach and plums?
Answer:
Mid of January.

Question 10.
What is time of planting pears, grapes?
Answer:
Mid of February.

Question 11.
What should be the level of water under the earth for planting fruit plants?
Answer:
Water should be below three metres from the surface of earth.

Question 12.
Give name of varieties of orange.
Answer:
Kinnow, Local, Daisy, W. Murcott.

Question 13.
Write varieties of malta (sweet orange).
Answer:
Musambi, Jaffa, Blood red, Valencia.

Question 14.
Write varieties of lemon.
Answer:
Kagazi, Baramasi Lemon-1, Galgal.

Question 15.
Write varieties of mango.
Answer:
Dusehari, Langra, Alphonso.

Question 16.
Write varieties of pears.
Answer:
Punjab beauty, Pathamakh (hard pear), Punjab nectar, Punjab gold, Baggugosha, Le Conte.

Question 17.
Write varieties of Peach.
Answer:
Early Grande, Shan-e-Punjab, Partap.

Question 18.
Write varieties of plums.
Answer:
Satluj purple, Kala Amritsari.

Question 19.
Write varieties of guava.
Answer:
Sardar, Allahabad Sufeda, Arka Amulya, Punjab pink.

Question 20.
Write varieties of grapes.
Answer:
Perlette, Beauty seedless, Flame seedless, Punjab purple, Shaweta.

Question 21.
Write varieties of her.
Answer:
Umran, Sanaur 2, Wallaiti.

Question 22.
Write varieties of litchi.
Answer:
Dehradun, Calcuttia.

Question 23.
Write varieties of Chicoo (Sapota).
Answer:
Kali pati, Cricket ball.

Question 24.
Write varieties of pomegranate.
Answer:
Bhagwa, Ganesh, Kandhari.

Question 25.
How many more plants are planted if the planting system is hexagonal?
Answer:
15-20 %.

Question 26.
Write about plant height taken from Nursery.
Answer:
Plants should be of medium height.

Question 27.
Which method is used to apply fertilizers of main nutrients in the orchards?
Answer:
Broadcast method.

Question 28.
Why should not fruit be pulled from the branch?
Answer:
It may rupture the skin of the fruit and branch may break also.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Punjab is divided into how many zones on the basis of climate and name them?
Answer:
Punjab is divided into three zones based on climate –

• Submountainous zone
• Central zone
• Arid irrigated zone.

Question 2.
Name the districts which lies in submountainous zone?
Answer:
Roop Nagar, Hoshiarpur, Pathankot, Sahibjada Ajit Singh Nagar, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar, Union territory Chandigarh.

Question 3. Which fruits are recommended for submountain zone?
Answer:
Mango, cirtrus fruits, lemon, kinnow, lime, litchi, peach, plums, chicoo, amla etc.

Question 4.
Which districts come under the central zone?
Answer:
Amritsar, Tarantaran, Kapurthala, Bamala, Patiala, Jalandhar, Sangrur, Ludhiana, Moga, Fatehgarh Sahib etc. .

Question 5.
Which fruit trees are recommended for central zone?
Answer:
Pears, guava, peach, mango, kinnow, orange, lemon, grapes etQuestion

Question 6.
Which are the districts which come under the arid-irrigated zone?
Answer:
Bhatinda, Manasa, Shri Mukatsar Sahib, Faridkot, Ferozepur, Fazilka etc.

Question 7.
Name the fruit plants which are recommended for arid- irrigated zone.
Answer:
Kinnow and other mandarins, malta, lemon, grapes, ber, guava etc.

Question 8.
What type of soil is required for cultivation of fruit plants? (For an orchard?)
Answer:
For an orchards soil should be well drained, deep, loamy and fertile. There should be not hard pan within two metres of its depth.

Question 9.
Which type of soil is not suitable for orchards?
Answer:
Fruit plants should not be grown in water logged, marshy, saline or acidic soils.

Question 10.
Which of the fruits can ripen after harvesting and which can not?
Answer:
Banana, Mango, Plums etc. can ripen or mature after harvesting but Grapes, Litchi etc. cannot mature after harvesting.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Write in brief about irrigation and fertilizer application for fruit plants.
Answer:
See above question (for fertilizers)
Irrigation:
Apply irrigation from March to June after every week, from November to February after 2-3 weeks, and July to November depending upon on rainfall and type of soil for young plants. When trees come to bearing then at the time of flowering and at the time of fruit set and in summer irrigation becomes necessary. If irrigation is not applied in summer it results in excessive shedding of flowers/fruits.

Question 2.
Write the improved varieties of following: Mango, Peach, Plums, Guava, Grapes, Amla, Pomegranate.
Answer:
Mango-Langra, Alphonso, Dushari.
Peach-Partap, Shan-e-Punjab, Florida Prince, Early grande, Parbhat.
Plums-Black Amritsari, Satluj Purple.
Guava-Arka Amulya, Alahabad Sufeda, Punjab Pink, Sardar.
Grapes-Beauty seedless, Punjab purple, Flame seedless, Perlette.
Amla-Neelam, Kanchan, Balwant.
Pomegranate-Kandhari, Ganesh, Bhagwa.

Question 3.
What do you know about the square system of plantation of fruit plants?
Answer:
Do yourself.

Question 4.
Which points should be kept in mind while selecting fruit plants from the nursery.
Answer:
Do yourself.

Punjab State Board PSEB 8th Class Agriculture Book Solutions Chapter 1 Soil and Soil Management Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 8 Agriculture Chapter 1 Soil and Soil Management

Agriculture Guide for Class 8 PSEB Soil and Soil Management Textbook Questions and Answers

(A) Answer in one to two words:

Question 1.
What is the pH of normal soil for crop production?
Answer:
pH should be from 6.5 to 8.7.

Question 2.
Name any two physical properties of soils.
Answer:
Particle size, soil density, pore size, water holding capacity etc.

Question 3.
Which soils have highest infiltration rate?
Answer:
Sandy soil.

Question 4.
What is the percentage of clay particles in clayey soils?
Answer:
At least 40% clayey particles.

Question 5.
Which soil property determines the soil acidity or alkalinity?
Answer:
Value of pH for the soil.

Question 6.
Which are the prominent salts present in saline soils?
Answer:
Chlorides and sulphates of potassium, calcium and magnesium.

Question 7.
The soil with higher concentration of sodium carbonates and bicarbonates are categorized as.
Answer:
Alkali soil.

Question 8.
Which amendment is used for reclamation of alkali soils?
Answer:
Gypsum.

Question 9.
Name two green manure crops.
Answer:
Daincha, Jantar.

Question 10.
Which crop is best suited for cultivation in clayey soils?
Answer:
For cultivation of paddy crop.

(B) Answer in one to two sentences:

Question 1.
What is soil?
Answer:
Soil is the upper layer of earth in which plant roots grow, plants take water and nutrients from it.

Question 2.
Write the important functions of soil.
Answer:
Crops absorb water and nutrients from soil and soil also gives physical strength to the plants.

Question 3.
Enlist the physical properties of soil.
Answer:
Size of particles, soil density, pore size, water holding capacity etc.

Question 4.
Compare clayey and sandy soils.
Answer:

Sandy Soil	Clayey Soil
1. If soil is rubbed between finger and thumb, it feels gritty.	1. Soil particles are very fine.
2. Water holding capacity in not good.	2. Water holding capacity is large.
3. Pore size is big.	3. Pore size is very small.

Question 5.
What acidic 90?
Answer:
Those soils which have high acidic content and their pH value is less than 7 are acidic soils. These soils are found in areas of heavy rain fall, due to this, bases drin out and due to decay of organic malter Like leaves etc. soil becomes acidic.

Question 6.
What is saline soil?
Answer:
Soils which have high content of salt in them are saline soils. These soils have chlorides and sulphates of potassium,, calcium and magnesium. .

Question 7.
Write two main methods to identify a sandy soil.
Answer:

• Sandy soils have higher infiltration rate.
• It feels gritty when soil is rubbed in hands.
• Moist ball breaks very easily.

Question 8.
What are the major properties of loamy soils?
Answer:

• Particles are very-very fine.
• Pore size is very small.
• When taken in hand it feels like powder.
• Water holding capacity is high.

Question 9.
What are saline-alkali soils?
Answer:
Soils with higher concentration of sodium and soluble salts in it are called saline-alkali soils.

Question 10.
What is puddling?
Answer:
Ploughing in flooded field is known as puddling.

(C) Answer in five to six sentences:

Question 1.
Describe the different types of sods according to their physical properties.
Answer:
Physical properties of soil are: size of soil particle, pore size, soil structure, water holding capacity etc. There are three types of soils:
1. Clayey Soil:
It has more than 40% of clay content. Its water holding capacity is high. Balls can be made from moist clay and do not break on applying pressure. Particles are fine and pore size is also very fine.

2. Sandy Soil:
These soils have low water holding capacity. Particle size is not very small and pore size is also not very small as compared to clayey soil, water infiltration rate is high. Moist ball break easily with very little pressure. When rubbed in hands it feels gritty.

3. Loamy soil:
Properties of this soil lies between sandy and clayey soil. Its properties are optimum for crop cultivation and is best suited for agriculture.

Question 2.
Give the diagrammatic representation of soil components.
Answer:
Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, water and air. Their proportion is shown in the diagram below. Water and air content can vary.

Question 3.
Explain the management practices for improving sandy soils.
Answer:

• Incorporate green manure which is 45-50 days old or before the flowering sets. Sunhemp/dhaincha can be used for this purpose.
• Apply well decomposed organic manue (FYM etc.) by ploughing.
• Poultry manure, pig manure and compost etc. can be mixed with the soil.
• Cultivate leguminous crops in such soils.
• Use small plot size for irrigation.
• Remove the top sandy layer by using Karaha.
• Incorporate clay soil or village pond soil to improve the quality.

Question 4.
Explain the method of reclamation of alkali soil.
Answer:

• Level the field uniformly so that distribution of water is same throughout the field.
• Do not allow the outflow of salt dissolved water to adjoining fields, prevent it by making strong bunds around the field.
• To know the requirement of gypsum for the soil, get soil and water tested.
• Broadcast the required dose of gypsum in the field and mix it with shallow ploughing.
• Apply green manure, organic manure etc. to improve the soil.

Question 5.
Explain in detail the management strategy for clayey soils.
Answer:

• To improve water infiltration rate and aeration of the clayey soil apply green manure and organic manure.
• Plough the crop residue in the soil.
• Plough the field at proper moisture content to avoid the formation of large-sized clods. .
• This soil is suitable for cultivation of paddy.
• There should be proper drainage system so as to drain out excessive water.

PSEB 8th Class Agriculture Guide Soil and Soil Management Important Questions and Answers

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Is earth living or non-living according to soil scientists?
Answer:
It is living.

Question 2.
What is the percentage of minerals and organic matter in earth?
Answer:
Minerals 45% and organic matter 0-5%.

Question 3.
Which soil is called light soil?
Answer:
Sandy soil.

Question 4.
Which soil has high water holding capacity?
Answer:
Clayey soil.

Question 5.
Which soil is best suited for agriculture?
Answer:
Loamy soil.

Question 6.
Where is the problem of acidic soils found?
Answer:
In areas of heavy rainfall.

Question 7.
What is value of pH for Acidic soils?
Answer:
Less than 7.

Question 8.
What range of pH value is suited for agriculture?
Answer:
6.5 to 8.7.

Question 9.
What is pH of saline soils?
Answer:
Less than 8.7.

Question 10.
Which soils are called Kauai, reh, Thur or shorn?
Answer:
Saline soils.

Question 11.
How much is the water holding capacity of alkali soils?
Answer:
Very less.

Question 12.
Name a crop used for green manure?
Answer:
Sunhemp, Jantar.

Question 13.
What should be the plot size for sandy soils for irrigation?
Answer:
Small size.

Question 14.
What is the suitable time to mix lime in acidic soil?
Answer:
3-6 months before sowing the crop.

Question 15.
How big is the problem of acidic soils in Punjab?
Answer:
There is no problem of acidic soils in Punjab.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Write reason why soils become acidic?
Answer:
Heavy rainfall helps in the growth of plants and more vegetation is found in such areas. Leaves etc. fall on the ground decompose and increase the acidic content. Rain water helps in the flowing out of basic salts which further adds to the acidic nature.

Question 2.
Write two properties of saline soils.
Answer:

• Chloride and sulphate salts of calcium, magnesium and potassium have high concentration in such soils.
• pH of these soils is less than 8.7.

Question 3.
Write two properties of alkali soils.
Answer:

• In such soils concentration of carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium is high.
• Infiltration rate of such soils is low.

Question 4.
Write two methods to reclaim the acidic soils.
Answer:
The soil is reclaimed by using lime. Remains from cane mill and wood ash can also be used.

Question 5.
Give properties of loamy soil.
Answer:
Its properties are between sandy and clayey soil. It feels like powder when taken in hands.

Question 6.
What is the meaning of water logged soil?
Answer:
Those soils in which water table is at depth of 0 to 1.5 m below surface of soil are called water logged soils.

Question 7.
How saline soils are reclaimed?
Answer:
Salts are washed away with water from the soil. For doing this field is flooded with water and is then ploughed. This water is drained out from the field which have salts dissolved in it. In another method, salts are made to dissolve into water and this water is allowed to leach down.

Question 8.
How can we improve sandy soils?
Answer:
We can improve sandy soil by incorporating 45-50 days old green manure crop of dhaincha/sunhemp in the soil.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Make a list of physical properties of soil. Write few lines about any one of these?
Answer:
Different soils have different physical properties. Some of the physical properties are:

1. Particle size
2. Depth
3. Colour
4. Density
5. Water holding capacity
6. Temperature
7. Pore size
8. Infiltration rate

Particle size:
Soil is made up of different mineral particles. Particle size depends on the ratio in which different sized particles are present in the soil. Fertility of the soil depends on particle size to some extent.

Question 2.
What is pH value? What is the effect of pH value on soil?
Answer:
pH value:
pH value tells us the nature of the soil i.e. acidic, neutral or alkaline nature. pH value is the ratio of concentration of hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxyl ion (OH-) in a solution.

pH value of soil	Type of soil
> 8.7	Alkali
8.7 – 7	slightly  alkaline
7	Neutral
7.6 to 5	light acidic
< 6.5	acidic

Question 3.
Write briefly about the chemical characters of soil?
Answer:
Soils have different types of chemical properties like pH, electric conductivity (EC), salt content, etc. Based on these chemical properties, soils are classified as below:

1. Acidic soils: These soils have a pH value of less than 7. These soils are found in areas where high rainfall occurs.
2. Salt-affected soils: These soils have a high concentration of salts. Based on salt concentration, pH and EC soils can be saline, alkali, or saline-alkali.

Punjab State Board PSEB 12th Class Religion Book Solutions Chapter 8 Ethical Teachings of Jainism Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 12 Religion Chapter 8 Ethical Teachings of Jainism

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you know about the origin of Jainism? Explain.
Answer:
Jainism is one of the most ancient religions of India. Its path of asceticism and traditions of yoga can be traced down to the Harappan period. Even the Vedic literature describes the Jaina Acharyas. From this, we know that Jainism was popular at that time. According to Jain traditions, Rishabhnatha who was the first Tirthankara was the first person who led to the beginning of human civilization. Hence, Jainism was prevalent at the time when civilization began.

The word Jain was derived from the Sanskrit word Jin which means victorious. The victorious means a person who has control over his senses and heart. Jainism has been called Nirgrantha from the beginning. Nirgrantha means freedom from bondage or free. Jain Acharyas are also called Tirthankar. Tirthankara means one who acts like a bridge or a guru who helps to cross the ocean of life. Jain philosophy is also called Arhat philosophy. Arhat means respectable. Those who followed Jainism were called Jains. The Jains believed in 24 Tirthankaras. Their names are as follows :

• Rishabhanatha
• Ajita
• Sambhava
• Abhinandana
• Sumati
• Padmaprabha
• Suparshva
• Chandraprabha
• Pushpadanta
• Shitala
• Sheyansha
• Vasupujya
• Vimala
• Ananta
• Dharma
• Shanti
• Kunthu
• Araha
• Malli
• Munisuvrata
• Nami
• Nemi
• Parshavanatha
• Mahavira

The Jains consider Rishabhanatha or Rishabadeva as the founder of Jainism. According to the Jaina traditions, he was born in Ayodhya. He ruled for several years. Later he gave the responsibility of the state to his son Bharat and left the materialistic world to lead the life of an ascetic. At last, he attained enlightenment. He preached the knowledge to other people. Therefore, he was called the first Tirthankara. It is not possible to give the history of the 21 Tirthankaras after him, but there is a description of them in the Jain traditions. In Jainism, the 23rd Tirthankara Parshavanatha and the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira are historically important people.

Lord Parshavanatha was born 250 years before Lord Mahavira at the house of King Ashvasena in Banaras. The name of his mother was Vamadevi. He had a luxurious childhood. At the age of 30 years, Parshavanatha gave up all the pleasures of life and went out in search of true knowledge. He attained enlightenment after 83 days of meditation. He spent the rest of the 70 years of life in preaching. Around 777 B.C., he “attained Nirvana at a mountain called Mount Sammeta.

The teachings of Parshavanatha are called Chaturyama or the four pledges. These four pledges are

• Do not harm the living beings (ahimsa).
• Do not tell lies (sunrita).
• Do not take without giving (asteya).
• Do not desire any materialistic things, (aparigraha)

Lord Mahavira added one more principle to these four principles which is called Brahmacharya. This is why Lord Mahavira is not regarded as the founder of Jainism, but is considered as a reformer or rejuvenator of £he faith which was already in existence and had a long tradition.

Question 2.

• Give the total number of Tirthankaras in Jainism.
• Throw light on the life of Lord Mahavira.

Or
Give the name of Mahavira’s mother. How many dreams did Lord Mahavira’s mother had before giving birth to Mahavira? Write a note on the life of Lord Mahavira.
Or
Give the number of Tirthankaras in Jainism. Write a note on the life of the 24th Tirthankara.
Or
What was Lord Mahavira’s number among Jain Tirthankaras? Write about Mahavira’s life.
Answer:
1. Birth and Childhood of Mahavira: Mahavira was born in 599 B.C. at Kundagrama near Vaisali (Bihar). A few historians believe his birth date to be 540 B.C. Mahavira’s childhood name was Vardhamana. Mahavira’s father’s name was Siddhartha. He was the chief 6f the Kshatriya tribe Jantrinka. Mahavira’s mother’s name was Trishala. She was the Sister of the Chetak, the ruler of Lichchavi dynasty. Before his birth, Mahavira’s mother had 14 dreams. Special arrangements were made for the education of Mahavira. Right from childhood, Mahavira had no interest in materialistic things. He was always lost in his own thoughts.

2. Marriage: To attract Mahavira’s attention towards materialism, his father got Mahavira married to a beautiful princess Yashoda. There is no definite information regarding Mahavira’s age at the time of his marriage. After some time, a daughter was born at Mahavira’s house. She was named Priyadarshana.

3. Renunciation and Enlightenment: Married life could not in any way hinder Mahavira’s religious interests. After his parents died, Mahavira took permission from his elder brother Nandivarman and left his household to go to the jungle in search of enlightenment. He was’30 years old at that time. He vigorously meditated in thfe jungle for 12 years. At last, he attained Kavala Jnana (enlightenment) at Jrimbhikagrama on the bank of the river Rijupalika. It was only after the attainment of enlightenment the Vardhaman began to be called Jin (one who has been able to conquer victory) and Mahavira (great conqueror). Mahavira was 42 at the time of enlightenment.

4. Preachings: After the attainment of enlightenment, Mahavira started preaching in order to eradicate the prevalent superstitions and to propagate his preachings about the True Path. Several people were impressed by his preachings and several people became his disciples. The famous preaching centres of Mahavira were Rajgriha, Vaishali, Kosala, Mithila, Videha and Anga. According to Jain traditions, the ruler of Magadha i.e. Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru also ambraced Jainism.

5. Nirvana: Lord Mahavira preached for nearly 30 years. It was at Pava (Patna) that Mahavira attained salvation in the year 527 B.C. at the age of 72. At that time, Mahavira had 14,000 disciples.

Question 3.
Discuss the origin and development of Jainism.
Or
Describe Jainism.
Answer:
Jainism is one of the most ancient religions of India. Its path of ascetism and traditions of yoga can be traced down the Harappan period. Even the Vedic literature describes the Jaina Acharyas. From this, we know that Jainism was popular at that time. According to Jain traditions, Rishabhnatha who was the first Tirthankara was the first person who led to the beginning of human civilization. Hence, Jainism was prevalent at the time when the civilization began.

The word Jain was derived from the Sanskrit word Jin which means victorious. The victorious means a person who has control over his senses and heart. Jainism has been called Nirgrantha from the beginning. Nirgrantha means freedom from bondage or free. Jain Acharyas are also called Tirthankar. Tirthankara means one who acts like a bridge or a guru who helps to cross the ocean of life. Jain philosophy is also called Arhat philosophy. Arhat means respectable. Those who followed Jainism were called Jains.

The Jains consider Rishabhanatha or Rishabadeva as the founder of Jainism. According to the Jaina traditions, he was born in Ayodhaya. He ruled for several years. Later he gave the responsibility of the state to his son Bharat and left the materialistic world to lead the life of an ascetic. At last he attained enlightenment. He preached the knowledge to the other people. Therefore, he was called the first Tirthankara. It is not possible to give the history of the 21 Tirthankaras after him, but there is a description about them in the Jain traditions. In Jainism, the 23rd Tirthankara Parshavanatha and the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira are historically important people.

Lord Parshavanatha was born 250 years before Lord Mahavira at the house of King Ashvasena in Banaras. The name of his mother was Vamadevi. He had a luxurious childhood. At the age of 30 years, Parshavanatha gave up all the pleasures of life and went out in search of true knowledge. He attained enlightenment after 83 days of pieditation. He spent the rest of his 70 years of life in preaching. Around 777 B.C., he “attained Nirvana at a mountain called Mount Sammeta.

The teachings of Parshavanatha are called Chaturyama or the four pledges. These four pledges are

• Do not harm the living beings (ahimsa).
• Do not tell lies (sunrita).
• Do not take without giving (asteya).
• Do not desire any materialistic things, (aparigraha)

Lord Mahavira added one more principle to these four principles which is called Brahmacharya. This is why Lord Mahavira is not regarded as the founder of Jainism, but is considered as a reformer or rejuvenator of £he faith which was already in existence and had a long tradition.

1. Birth and Childhood of Mahavira : Mahavira was born in 599 B.C. at Kundagrama near Vaisali (Bihar). A few historians believe his birth date to be 540 B.C. Mahavira’s childhood name was Vardhamana. Mahavira’s father’s name was Siddhartha. He was the chief 6f a Kshatriya tribe Jantrinka. Mahavira’s mother’s name was Trishala. She was the Sister of the Chetak, the ruler of Lichchavi dynasty. Before his birth, Mahavira’s mother had 14 dreams. Special arrangements were made for the education of Mahavira. Right from childhood, Mahavira had no interest in materialistic things. He was always lost in his own thoughts.

2. Marriage : To attract Mahavira’s attention towards materialism, his father got Mahavira married to a beautiful princess Yashoda. There is no definite information regarding Mahavira’s age at the time of his marriage. After some time, a daughter was born at Mahavira’s house. She was named Priyadarshana.

3. Renunciation and Enlightenment: Married life could not in any way hinder Mahavira’s religious interests. After his parents died, Mahavira took permission from his elder brother Nandivarman and left his household to go to the jungle in search of enlightenment. He was 30 years old at that time. He vigorously meditated in the jungle for 12 years. At last, he attained Kavala Jnana (enlightenment) at Jrimbhikagrama on the bank of the river Rijupalika.

It was only after the attainment of enlightenment the Vardhaman began to be called Jin (one who has been able to conquer victory) and Mahavira (great conqueror). Mahavira was 42 at the time of enlightenment.

4. Preachings: After the attainment of enlightenment, Mahavira started preaching in order to eradicate the prevalent superstitions and to propagate his preachings about the True Path. Several people were impressed by his preachings and several people became his disciples. The famous preaching centres of Mahavira were Rajgriha, Vaishali, Kosala, Mithila, Videha and Anga. According to Jain traditions, the ruler of Magadha i.e. Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru also ambraced Jainism.

5. Nirvana : Lord Mahavira preached for nearly 30 years. It was at Pava (Patna) that Mahavira attained salvation in the year 527 B.C. at the age of 72. At that time, Mahavira had 14,000 disciples.

Question 4.
“Ethical teachings are the foundation of Jainism.”
Or
Discuss the Ethical teachings of Jainism.
Or
Describe in brief but meaningful the basic teachings of Jainism.
Or
Describe the basic teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Or
“Moral Values are the basis of Jainism.” Elucidate.
Or
Describe the Ethical teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Or
Describe the Ethical values of Jainism.
Or
Discuss about the Ethical teachings of Jainism.
Or
Write a detailed note on Jain Ethics.
Or
Discuss the Ethical values of Jainism.
Or
Discuss the main teachings of Jainism.
Or
Discuss the Ethical teachings of Jainism.
Or
Give information about moral teachings of Jainism.
Or
Write the teachings of Jainism.
Answer:
The main ethical teachings of Jainism or Mahavira have significantly contributed to our Indian culture that we are proud of it even today. Jainism taught people the lesson of Tri-Ratna, Ahimsa, good behaviour and mutual brotherhood. It vehemently opposed the superstitions prevalent in society. It had no faith in yajnas, sacrifices, Vedas and sanctity of Sanskrit as a language. It inspired people to lead a simple and pious life. Undoubtedly, Jainism, with its ethical teachings performed the great task of rendering a new direction to the Indian society.

1. Tri-Ratna : Acocrding to Jainism, the prime objective of human life is the attainment of salvation or Nirvana. For its attainment, a person must tread on the path of the Tri-Ratnas known as the three gems. These are : Right Belief, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. According to the first ratna, each person must have firm faith in the 24 Tirthankaras, Nine Truths and the Jain shastras. According to the second ratna, the Jains should acquire true and complete knowledge.

This is acquired by an indepth study of the preachings of the Tirthankaras. There are two forms of this knowledge which are called the direct knowledge and the indirect knowledge. The knowledge obtained through the Self is direct knowledge whereas knowledge obtained through one’s senses is called the indirect knowledge.

There are five types of knowledge whose names are as follows : Mati Jnana, Shruti Jnana, Swadhi Jnana, Manparyadi Jnana and Kevala Jnana. According to the third ratna, every man should spend his life with the right conduct. Right conduct is that of which Jainism gives us a teaching. All the three ratnas move together. In the absence of even one of these, man cannot achieve his goal. As an example, just as it is very important to put oil, wick and fire to light a lamp because in the absence of even any one of these, there would be no illumination.

2. Ahimsa : Jainism emphasises a lot on Ahimsa. Aacharanga Sutra emphasises on the importance of Ahimsa by saying, “One’s life is dear to everyone, all want happiness, no one desires sorrow, no one wants in excess, life is dear to everybody and all have a desire to live.” Hence, whatever is pleasurable for us is pleasurable for others as well. Violence is of two types : violence through the heart and violence through Karma. Before violence comes in action or through Karma, violence first comes in one’s heart i.e. in one’s thoughts. Anger, pride, greed and fraud are forms of violence of the heart. Hence, it is extremely important to purify the thoughts of the heart in order to avoid violence. According to Jainism, besides human beings, the Soul also resides in animals, stones and trees etc.

Hence we should not give any trouble to the living or non-living beings. For this reason, the Jains walk barefoot, wear a cloth over the mouth, drink water after sieving and eat nothing after dark to avoid killing of any small creature. According to Harbans Singh and L.M. Joshi, “The doctrine of non-violence (ahimsa) is a cardinal principle of Jain religion.”

3. Nine Truths : Jain philosophy teaches that there are Nine Truths. These truths are :

1. Jiva—In Jain philosophy, the Jiva means atman or soul. It is eternal and absolute. It enjoys or suffers the fruits of its deeds. It transmigrates.
2. Ajiva—It is the non-living element. It does not have the power to think. It has two types. One that has form (Rupi) and one that is formless (Arupi)
3. Punya—It is a consequence of good actions. There are nine ways to merit.
4. Papa—It is the main cause of the bondage of Jiva. Papa results in terrible punishment. It leads to 82 different censequences.
5. Asarva—It is the process of accumulation of deeds or Karmic matter by the soul. The Karmas are of 8 types.
6. Samvara—The process that prevents the Karma to come near the Self is called Samvara. There are 57 ways to inhibit the Karma.
7. Bandha—It means bondage. It is the union of Jiva with Pudgala. There are 5 reasons responsible for bondage.
8. Nirjara—It means to eradicate. It helps to destroy Karma.
9. Moksha—In this, the creature is freed from the vicious circle of Karma. It is a state of complete peace wherein he attains freedom from all kinds of sorrows.

4. Karma Theory : In Jainism, the Karma theory has a significant place. According to this theory, ‘”You shall reap what you shall sow. If one indulges in good deeds, one shall obtain good fruit, if one performs bad deeds then the consequence shall be negative, under no circumstances would they be able to acquire freedom from Karma.” As soon as one has a good or a bad thought, it immediately attaches itself to the Jiva (Self) just as the dust particles stick themselves to the oily body. These Karmas are of eight types :

1. Gyanvarniya Karmas—They inhibit the knowledge of Self.
2. Darshanvamiya Karmas—They inhibit the desire of the Self.
3. Vaidniya Karmas—These actions lead to happiness and sorrow.
4. Mohniya Karmas—These are Karmas that entrap the Self in the vicious circle of attachment.
5. Ayu Karmas— These Karmas determine the age of a person.
6. Naam Karmas—These Karmas determine the personality of a person.
7. Gotra Karmas—These determine the- gotra and hence his higher and lower status in society.
8. Antriya Karmas—These are Karmas that inhibit good Karmas.

Because of one’s Karmas, man is trapped in the vicious circle of transmigration. Man can obtain freedom by destroying one’s Karmas.

5. The Doctrine of Manyness : The Doctrine of Manyness is a unique philosophical theory of Jain philosophy. The word manyness indicates many elements of severs! religions or virtues. It means that whatever form of knowledge we have about a thing may be quite different from the form of knowledge another person has about that thing. As an example, a child is considered to be a son by a mother, a brother by a sister, paternal grandson by a paternal grandmother, maternal grandson by maternal grandmother and a friend by other children.

It means that every element has many virtues or there is manyness attached to every element. For this reason, our knowledge about each element is only partial. It is called Syadvaad. It is another form of manyness.

6. Five Mahavartas or Annuvartas : According to Jainism, a man should follow the Five Mahavartas in his life. According to these

• Man should always follow the policy of Ahimsa (non-violence),
• He should always speak the truth.
• He should not keep any thing with him which he has not obtained in charity,
• He should not keep wealth with him.
• He should follow Brahmacharya.

Of these, the first four principles were popularised by Parshavanatha whereas the fifth principle was incorporated by Mahavira. According to Dr. K.C. Sogani, “The observance of these five vows is capable of bringing about individual as well as social progress.”2

7. Good Character : Lord Mahavira gave special importance to good character. He said that we should stay away from vices; like stealing, telling lies, backbiting, greed etc. He said that we should lead a simple and pious life. Man should detest evil and not the evil doer.

8. Worship of Twenty Four Tirthankaras : Those who believed in Jainism worshipped the 24 Tirthankaras. They strongly believed in the Tirthankaras to attain salvation.

9. Belief in Equality : Jainism believed in the principle of equality. According to it, all men are equal. Hence one should not discriminate on the basis of rich-poor, high-low etc.

10. Disbelief in Yajnas and Sacrifices : Jainism shows disbelief in yajnas, sacrifices and other customs and traditions in vain. According to them, no human being can attain salvation with the exhibition of religious practices. Hence Jainism asked people to keep away from all superstitions.

11. Disbelief in Vedas and Sanskrit Language : Lord Mahavira did not have any faith in the holy texts, the Vedas. He was of the view that the Vedas were not composed as a result of divine knowledge. Hence it is useless to read the Vedic mantras. He did not believe in the sanctity of Sanskrit language. He considered all the languages as sacred. He propagated his preachings in the prevalent Ardhamagadhi language.

12. Disbelief in God : Jainism does not believe in the existence of God. According to this, God is not responsible for the creation, preservation and destruction of the world. There is no need to have a God to attain salvation. Man’s Self is his greatest power. Man can attain salvation by leading a simple and pious life.

13. Nirvana : According to Mahavira, the main aim of human life is the attainment of Nirvana. In Jainism, Nirvana implies the attainment of freedom from the cycle of transmigration. After the attainment of Nirvana, man is freed from the cycle of transmigration and he attains eternal peace.

Question 5.
Describe the life and important teachings of Bhagwan Mahavira.
Answer:
1. Birth and Childhood of Mahavira : Mahavira was born in 599 B.C. at Kundagrama near Vaisali (Bihar). A few historians believe his birth date to be 540 B.C. Mahavira’s childhood name was Vardhamana. Mahavira’s father’s name was Siddhartha. He was the chief 6f a Kshatriya tribe Jantrinka. Mahavira’s mother’s name was Trishala. She was the Sister of the Chetak, the ruler of Lichchavi dynasty. Before his birth, Mahavira’s mother had 14 dreams. Special arrangements were made for the education of Mahavira. Right from childhood, Mahavira had no interest in materialistic things. He was always lost in his own thoughts.

2. Marriage : To attract Mahavira’s attention towards materialism, his father got Mahavira married to a beautiful princess Yashoda. There is no definite information regarding Mahavira’s age at the time of his marriage. After some time, a daughter was born at Mahavira’s house. She was named Priyadarshana.

3. Renunciation and Enlightenment: Married life could not in any way hinder Mahavira’s religious interests. After his parents died, Mahavira took permission from his elder brother Nandivarman and left his household to go to the jungle in search of enlightenment. He was’30 years old at that time. He vigorously meditated in thfe jungle for 12 years. At last, he attained Kavala Jnana (enlightenment) at Jrimbhikagrama on the bank of the river Rijupalika. It was only after the attainment of enlightenment the Vardhaman began to be called Jin (one who has been able to conquer victory) and Mahavira (great conqueror). Mahavira was 42 at the time of enlightenment.

4. Preachings: After the attainment of enlightenment, Mahavira started preaching in order to eradicate the prevalent superstitions and to propagate his preachings about the True Path. Several people were impressed by his preachings and several people became his disciples. The famous preaching centres of Mahavira were Rajgriha, Vaishali, Kosala, Mithila, Videha and Anga. According to Jain traditions, the ruler of Magadha i.e. Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru also ambraced Jainism.

5. Nirvana : Lord Mahavira preached for nearly 30 years. It was at Pava (Patna) that Mahavira attained salvation in the year 527 B.C. at the age of 72. At that time, Mahavira had 14,000 disciples.

The main ethical teachings of Jainism or Mahavira have significantly contributed to our Indian culture that we are proud of it even today. Jainism taught people the lesson of Tri-Ratna, Ahimsa, good behaviour and mutual brotherhood. It vehemently opposed the superstitions prevalent in society. It had no faith in yajnas, sacrifices, Vedas and sanctity of Sanskrit as a language. It inspired people to lead a simple and pious life. Undoubtedly, Jainism, with its ethical teachings performed the great task of rendering a new direction to the Indian society.

1. Tri-Ratna : Acocrding to Jainism, the prime objective of human life is the attainment of salvation or Nirvana. For its attainment, a person must tread on the path of the Tri-Ratnas known as the three gems. These are : Right Belief, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. According to the first ratna, each person must have firm faith in the 24 Tirthankaras, Nine Truths and the Jain shastras. According to the second ratna, the Jains should acquire true and complete knowledge.

This is acquired by an indepth study of the preachings of the Tirthankaras. There are two forms of this knowledge which are called the direct knowledge and the indirect knowledge. The knowledge obtained through the Self is direct knowledge whereas knowledge obtained through one’s senses is called the indirect knowledge.

There are five types of knowledge whose names are as follows : Mati Jnana, Shruti Jnana, Swadhi Jnana, Manparyadi Jnana and Kevala Jnana. According to the third ratna, every man should spend his life with the right conduct. Right conduct is that of which Jainism gives us a teaching. All the three ratnas move together. In the absence of even one of these, man cannot achieve his goal. As an example, just as it is very important to put oil, wick and fire to light a lamp because in the absence of even any one of these, there would be no illumination.

2. Ahimsa : Jainism emphasises a lot on Ahimsa. Aacharanga Sutra emphasises on the importance of Ahimsa by saying, “One’s life is dear to everyone, all want happiness, no one desires sorrow, no one wants in excess, life is dear to everybody and all have a desire to live.” Hence, whatever is pleasurable for us is pleasurable for others as well. Violence is of two types : violence through the heart and violence through Karma.

Before violence comes in action or through Karma, violence first comes in one’s heart i.e. in one’s thoughts. Anger, pride, greed and fraud are forms of violence of the heart. Hence, it is extremely important to purify the thoughts of the heart in order to avoid violence. According to Jainism, besides human beings, the Soul also resides in animals, stones and trees etc.

Hence we should not give any trouble to the living or non-living beings. For this reason, the Jains walk barefoot, wear a cloth over the mouth, drink water after sieving and eat nothing after dark to avoid killing of any small creature. According to Harbans Singh and L.M. Joshi, “The doctrine of non-violence (ahimsa) is a cardinal principle of Jain religion.”

3. Nine Truths : Jain philosophy teaches that there are Nine Truths. These truths are :

• Jiva—In Jain philosophy, the Jiva means atman or soul. It is eternal and absolute. It enjoys or suffers the fruits of its deeds. It transmigrates.
• Ajiva—It is the non-living element. It does not have the power to think. It has two types. One that has form (Rupi) and one that is formless (Arupi)
• Punya—It is a consequence of good actions. There are nine ways to merit.
• Papa—It is the main cause of the bondage of Jiva. Papa results in terrible punishment. It leads to 82 different censequences.
• Asarva—It is the process of accumulation of deeds or Karmic matter by the soul. The Karmas are of 8 types.
• Samvara—The process that prevents the Karma to come near the Self is called Samvara. There are 57 ways to inhibit the Karma.
• Bandha—It means bondage. It is the union of Jiva with Pudgala. There are 5 reasons responsible for bondage.
• Nirjara—It means to eradicate. It helps to destroy Karma.
• Moksha—In this, the creature is freed from the vicious circle of Karma. It is a state of complete peace wherein he attains freedom from all kinds of sorrows.

4. Karma Theory : In Jainism, the Karma theory has a significant place. According to this theory, ‘”You shall reap what you shall sow. If one indulges in good deeds, one shall obtain good fruit, if one performs bad deeds then the consequence shall be negative, under no circumstances would they be able to acquire freedom from Karma.” As soon as one has a good or a bad thought, it immediately attaches itself to the Jiva (Self) just as the dust particles stick themselves to the oily body. These Karmas are of eight types :

• Gyanvarniya Karmas—They inhibit the knowledge of SelT-
• Darshanvamiya Karmas—They inhibit the desire of the Self.
• Vaidniya Karmas—These actions lead to happiness and sorrow.
• Mohniya Karmas—These are Karmas that entrap the Self in the vicious circle of attachment.
• Ayu Karmas— These Karmas determine the age of a person.
• Naam Karmas—These Karmas determine the personality of a person.
• Gotra Karmas—These determine the- gotra and hence his higher and lower status in society.
• Antriya Karmas—These are Karmas that inhibit good Karmas.

Because of one’s Karmas, man is trapped in the vicious circle of transmigration. Man can obtain freedom by destroying one’s Karmas.

5. The Doctrine of Manyness : The Doctrine of Manyness is a unique philosophical theory of Jain philosophy. The word manyness indicates many elements of severs! religions or virtues. It means that whatever form of knowledge we have about a thing may be quite different from the form of knowledge another person has about that thing. As an example, a child is considered to be a son by a mother, a brother by a sister, paternal grandson by a paternal grandmother, maternal grandson by maternal grandmother and a friend by other children. It means that every element has many virtues or there is manyness attached to every element. For this reason, our knowledge about each element is only partial. It is called Syadvaad. It is another form of manyness.

6. Five Mahavartas or Annuvartas : According to Jainism, a man should follow the Five Mahavartas in his life. According to these

• Man should always follow the policy of Ahimsa (non-violence),
• He should always speak the truth.
• He should not keep any thing with him which he has not obtained in charity,
• He should not keep wealth with him.
• He should follow Brahmacharya.

Of these, the first four principles were popularised by Parshavanatha whereas the fifth principle was incorporated by Mahavira. According to Dr. K.C. Sogani, “The observance of these five vows is capable of bringing about individual as well as social progress.”

7. Good Character : Lord Mahavira gave special importance to good character. He said that we should stay away from vices; like stealing, telling lies, backbiting, greed etc. He said that we should lead a simple and pious life. Man should detest evil and not the evil doer.

8. Worship of Twenty Four Tirthankaras : Those who believed in Jainism worshipped the 24 Tirthankaras. They strongly believed in the Tirthankaras to attain salvation.

9. Belief in Equality : Jainism believed in the principle of equality. According to it, all men are equal. Hence one should not discriminate on the basis of rich-poor, high-low etc.

10. Disbelief in Yajnas and Sacrifices : Jainism shows disbelief in yajnas, sacrifices and other customs and traditions in vain. According to them, no human being can attain salvation with the exhibition of religious practices. Hence Jainism asked people to keep away from all superstitions.

11. Disbelief in Vedas and Sanskrit Language : Lord Mahavira did not have any faith in the holy texts, the Vedas. He was of the view that the Vedas were not composed as a result of divine knowledge. Hence it is useless to read the Vedic mantras. He did not believe in the sanctity of Sanskrit language. He considered all the languages as sacred. He propagated his preachings in the prevalent Ardhamagadhi language.

12. Disbelief in God : Jainism does not believe in the existence of God. According to this, God is not responsible for the creation, preservation and destruction of the world. There is no need to have a God to attain salvation. Man’s Self is his greatest power. Man can attain salvation by leading a simple and pious life.

13. Nirvana : According to Mahavira, the main aim of human life is the attainment of Nirvana. In Jainism, Nirvana implies the attainment of freedom from the cycle of transmigration. After the attainment of Nirvana, man is freed from the cycle of transmigration and he attains eternal peace.

Question 6.
What is meant by three Jewels in Jainism? Discuss.
Or
Explain Tri-Ratna and tell to which religion do they belong?
Or
Explain the three Jewels of Jainism.
Or
Discuss the Tri-Ratnas of Jainism.
Answer:
It is clear from the principles of Jain philosophy that first the creature (self) is in its pure form. Later, because of karmic elements, it loses its sanctity. As a consequence, man has to face grave problems. If these karmic elements are destroyed, then man can successfully cross the sea of transmigration and attain salvation. Jain philosophy considers the attainment of salvation as the highest objective of human life. A person of any caste, sex, religion, class or age can tread on this path. To tread on this path the Tri-Ratnas have been prescribed in Jainism.

These Tri-Ratnas are

• Right Belief
• Right Knowledge
• Right Conduct.

These Tri-Ratnas are not three different paths for the attainment of salvation but three ways are complementary to the same path. If a single path from amongst them is missing, then man would not be able to achieve his objective. As an example, if a man needs to go to the terrace, he would have to use a ladder but if the ladder is placed against the wall and even one of the supports is missing in between them, that man will never be able to reach the top. A brief description of the Tri-Ratnas is as follows :

1. Right Belief: Among the Tri-Ratnas, the Ratna of Right Belief has been given the first and foremost position. Because if man does not have the Right Belief then he cannot acquire true knowledge and true conduct. . Right Belief means that a person who wants to attain salvation must have complete faith in the 24 Jain Tirthankaras, Nine Great Truths and the Jain Shastras. According to the Jain Shastras, Right Belief can be accomplished only when the concerned person a,dorns its 8 parts.

These 8 parts are :

1. No doubt in any of the principles of Janism.
2. There should be no love for materialistic goods,
3. Despite uncountable vices in the body, one should not develop a sense of resentment for it.
4. One should not have a bent of mind towards the incorrect path,
5. The pious should be praised but the others should not be criticised,
6. People who have deviated from the path of Dharma must be shown the right path,
7. The religious minded people should be completely respected,
8. Tireless efforts should be made to propagate Jain principles.

Right Belief can be acquired by a person only when he keeps at bay from three kinds of superstitions and 8 kinds of pride.

The 3 kinds of superstitions are as follows :

• To think of oneself pious by climbing mountains, bathing in the rivers or walking on fire,
• To believe in the false gods and goddesses,
• To serve the false ascetics.

The 8 kinds of pride are as follows :

• Pride in knowledge,
• Pride in worship,
• Pride in family,
• Pride in one’s caste,
• Pride in one’s power,
• Pride in wealth,
• Pride in meditation,
• Pride in physical beauty. Right Belief prepares the foundation of prosperity and salvation for us.

2. Right Knowledge : Right Knowledge is the foundation of right belief. For this reason, there is a strong relationship between Right Belief and Right Knowledge. Right Knowledge is that which is given in the Jain Shastras. A person who wants to attain salvation, should essentially attain Right Knowledge. This knowledge does not come from outside but comes by removing the curtains of the element of Karma from one’s life. This knowledge is said to have two forms which are called direct and indirect. The knowledge that one acquires directly through the Soul is called direct whereas the knowledge that one acquires through senses is called indirect knowledge.

The Jains give five types of knowledge :

• Mati Jnana : This knowledge is acquired through the senses and is limited,
• Shruti Jnana : This knowledge is acquired by reading or listening. Through this, the knowledge of the past, present and future can be acquired. This knowledge too can be acquired through the senses,
• Awadhi Jnana : The knowledge acquired through the Soul about a distant time and place is called Awadhi Jnana.
• Manparyaya Jnana : This knowledge too can be acquired through the Soul,
• Kevala Jnana : It is the complete true knowledge. It is also called Parmarthic Gyan. A person who acquires this knowledge is called Siddha.

Errors in knowledge are caused because of :

• an error caused by senses
• incorrect study
• vague perspective.

Just as a little amount of sourness added to milk can make the entire milk sour, similarly a small flaw in one’s knowledge prohibits a person from acquiring the Right Knowledge.

3. Right Conduct : In order to attain salvation, aft.er acquiring Right Belief and Right Knowledge, it is extremely essential to acquire the Right Conduct. Right Conduct alone destroys the karmic elements of a person and prepares the path of salvation for him. To follow the Right Conduct, Jainism has prescribed some rules. These rules though apply in the same manner to the common people and the Jain ascetics but the degree of enforcement is different. The Jain ascetics have to strictly follow these rules whereas some concessions have been granted to the common people. These rules are called the five Mahavratas or five Annuvratas.

According to- these :

1. Man should never give suffering to others and he should follow the policy of Ahimsa.
2. He should always speak the truth. He should speak sweet and good for all.
3. He should not keep anything with him which he has not received in charity.
4. He should not desire any materialistic things.
5. He should follow Brahmacharya.

By following the above mentioned Tri-Ratnas, a creature’s karmic deeds start getting destroyed slowly and he attains his ultimate objective i.e. Moksha. In the end, we agree with the words of J.P. Sudha, “According to the Jains, the three Jewels of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct, known as Triratna constitute the path which prevents fresh karmic matter from entering the soul and frees the individual from the bond of rebirth.”

Question 7.
Write a note on Ahimsa (non-violence) of Jainism.
Or
Throw light on the Jain principle of Ahimsa.
Or
What is meant by Ahimsa? What is its importance in Jainism?
Or
Write a note on the concept of Ahimsa in Jainism.
Answer:
1. Meaning of Ahimsa : No other religion in the world has given so much importance to the policy of Ahimsa as has Jainism. There would be no exaggeration if one would call Ahimsa as the foundation of Jainism. Ahimsa means not to give suffering to any living being. Tightly roping the living creatures, hitting them, making them carry bulk greater than their stamina, keeping them deprived of food and water is prohibited in Jainism. Besides this, it is absolutely inappropriate to kill them for one’s own food.

According to Jain philosophy, there is life in trees and stones even. Hence, we should not cause any harm to them also. It is said in the Aacharang Sutra, “Life is dear to all, all desire happiness, no one wants sorrow, no one wants more, life is dear to all and all desire to live.” Hence, what is happiness for one, is happiness for the others also.

2. Two types of Violence : Violence is of two types : violence in thought or inner violence and violence in action or physical and external violence. All violence in action is preceded by violence in thought. In order to prevent-violence one must purify one’s thoughts. One commits sin and becomes guilty of violence when one has passionate ideas. The impure state of the inner self is a state of violence. Man gets entrapped in the vicious circle of materialistic greed and turns to violence in order to fulfil his lust, to dupe someone or to take revenge on someone.

When thoughts pertaining to this come to a person’s mind, he first pollutes his Soul. He does not stop there, but resorts to external violence and thus causes suffering to others and to himself as well. It is imperative for a person that he purifies his thoughts to prevent violence. While preaching to his disciples, Mahavira said, “Oh ! Shramanas, first fight with yourself and then proceed towards the purification of the Soul. Nothing can be achieved through external battles.”

3. Ahimsa is a Way of Life : Ahisma has been described as a way of life in Jain philosophy. A person can observe complete control over violence only when he knows about the various kinds and forms of violence. The Jain Sutras give a description of 108 types of violence that have been divided into four categories. In the first category, there are three levels of violence. Violence can be practised by self, can be made to be performed by the others or practised wishfully by the others. Man can practise violence through his heart, speech and body.

In the second category, the three tier violence becomes that of nine levels because it is practised through each of the media of heart, speech and body. In the next category, violence acquires 27 levels because there are three stages of violence-thoughts of violence, preparation for violence and then putting violence into practice. In the fourth category, the 27 level violence becomes the 108 level violence because it rises from any one of the 4 internal states of mind.

4. Ways to Escape Ahimsa : It is impossible to escape the various forms of violence. Still, the Jains observe several rules to escape from these in their lives. They walk barefoot so that no insect gets killed under their feet. They cover their mouth with a cloth so that no insect goes into their mouth. With this objective, they sieve water before drinking and do not have food after sunset. Jains mostly undertake trade as a profession and do not practise agriculture at all because they feel that during agricultural process a number of creatures get killed.

Jainism prohibits a person from consuming alcohol and intoxicants, eating flesh and fighting battles in order to prevent the thoughts of violence from entering one’s mind. By consuming these intoxicants, there is an arousal of lust and other vices in the body. This leads to a feeling of evil and causes violence. Consequently, man indulges in violence in carelessness. There is a restriction on the eating of flesh, so that to stop killing of animals and birds for food and participating in violence.

During war, a person feels proud in killing enemies, but according to Jainism killing is absolutely incorrect. It is clear from the abpve description, that in comparison to the other rules, more emphasis is laid on the principle of Ahimsa. Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain has aptly remarked, ‘ “The Ahimsite way of life is the sure panacea for all moral, social, economic and political ills. Ahimsa is the highest religion, and where there is Ahimsa, there is Victory.”

Question 8.
What is meant by Nine Truths of Jainism? Explain briefly.
Or
Which are the Nine Tatvas in Jainism? Discuss.
Or
Write a note on Nine Tatvas of Jainism.
Or
What do we learn from Nine Tatvas of Jainism?
Or
Describe the Nine Ratnas of Jainism.
Answer:
The Nine Truths or Tatvas hold a central position in Jaina philosophy. A person who desires to attain salvation should know about these Nine Truths.

These Nine Truths are :

• Jiva
• Ajiva
• Punya
• Papa
• Asarva
• Bandha
• Samvara
• Nirjara
• Moksha.

According to the Digambara sect there are seven truths. They do not consider Papa and Punya as separate, According to them, they take them as part of Asarva and Bandha. A brief description of these truths is as follows :

1. Jiva : The word Jiva means Atman (soul). It is a living entity. There are two types of Jiva in Jain philosophy. They are also called worldly creatures and free creatures. Wordly creatures are also called bonded creatures. This creature is trapped in the vicious cycle of transmigration and keeps taking birth again and again according to one’s actions and receives the good and bad fruit. A free creature is one that is free from rebirth. This creature is one with unlimited knowledge, unlimited power and unlimited qualities. This creature is free from the web of Karma.

2. Ajiva : Ajiva implies those non-living elements which have no life in them like books, paper, table and ink etc. As an example, Jiva expands in the body of the camel till it becomes as big as a camel and Jiva contracts in the body of the ant till it becomes as small as an ant. This Jiva is not visible but one can experience its presence on the basis of the actions of the body. But when the body ceases to exist, then the Jiva also becomes non-existent.

The Jiva acquires the form of the body that it occupies. Ajiva is of two types Rupi and Arupi. Rupi are those that are visible like chair, pen, pot etc. Arupi are those that are not visible like time, worry and happiness etc. There are 5 non-living elements of the Ajiva in Jain philosophy. A brief description of these is given as follows:

(a) Pudgala : Pudgala means elements or atoms. The Pudgala has four qualities of rupa, sparsh, rasa and gandh. The pudgala of agni have qualities of rupa (form), Pudgala of vayu have qualities of sparsh (touch) and Pudgala of prithvi have qualities of gandh (smell). There are two forms of Pudgala : anu rupa and skandha rupa. Anu rupa Pudgala are not worth consumption by the creatures whereas skandha rupa Pudgala are worth consumption by the creatures. The Pudgalas are considered to be the basic foundation of the creation of the entire materialistic world.

(b) Dharma : This element renders movement to the creatures and Pudgalas and aids their mutual cooperation. For example, fish needs water for its movement in the same manner, the creatures and pudgalas imperatively require Dharma for movement. There can be no movement without Dharma.

(c) Adharma : Its form and action are completely different from Dharma. It causes obstacles in the movement of the creatures and Pudgalas. But Adharma is not the exact opposite of Dharma. The obstacle in the movement of the creature by Adharma is considered helpful for the leisure of the creature.

(d) Akasha : Akasha means that place which houses all the expansive elements of Jiva, Pudgala, Dharma and Adharma. It is on the basis of the elements that one can assume the presence of the Akasha. According to Jain philosophy, there are two types of Akasha, Lokakasha and Alokakasha. Lokakasha is that Akasha in which the materialistic world is present and the Akasha present above this is called Alokakasha.

(e) Kala : Kala means time. It is not an expansive element. Its presence can be felt only through assumption. The Kala is considered to be the prime cause of changes in the world. The Kala is associated with the past, present and future. Kala is called the element of the beginning and end.

3. Punya : Punya is that Karma that is earned through good deeds. There are different ways of earning Punya. Giving food to the hungry, giving water to the thirsty, giving clothes to the naked, to care for others and serving them, speaking sweetly etc. are actions of Punya. There are 42 means of deserving Punya. Good health, financial prosperity, fame, good marital life, good relatives, having good friends, good education and appointment to high posts etc. are consequences of good Punya. Punya is considered to be an aid to the Self because it gives happiness.

4. Papa : Papa is considered to be the main cause for the bonds of a creature. Killing of creatures, telling lies, stealing, greed, attachment, pride, forgery, drug abuse and enemity etc. lead to an increase in the bulk of the Papa. The evils are subjected to great punishments. You must have seen that two real brothers born in the same house have great disparity in their lives. One may be designated at a high post and may acquire great fame.

The other flees from pillar to post, indulges in stealing and earns a bad name. Why does this happen? According to Jain philosophy, there is a reason for such a person earning Punya and Papa. An evil doer can never be happy and has to suffer grave problems in his life. Even his Soul keeps suffering. According to Jain Sutras, there are 82 different consequences of Papa (evil).

5. Asrava : There are uncountable karmic elements in the universe that the Soul attracts towards itself according to good and bad deeds. This action of entry is called Asrava. A man’s Karmas are included in a person’s Soul in the same manner as water enters a boat through a hole. Karma is the main cause for a creature’s bonds. Karmas are material.

Hence they do not enter the Jiva directly, they enter the Jiva with the help of the heart, thought and body. Karmas are of two types, good and bad. If good Karmas enter the Jiva, it acquires happiness and if bad Karmas enter the Jiva, then it experiences suffering. Hence, whether the Karmas are good or bad depends on the nature of a person.

6. Bandha : When the karmic matter veils the pure form of a creature, it gets impure. It becomes the cause of bondage of a creature. According to Jain philosophy, there are five reasons for going in this direction,

• Mithyadarshana : It means wrong belief,
• Avirati : It means lack of promise,
• Pramada : It means carelessness,
• Kashaya : It means lust,
• Yoga : It means the action of the body, heart and speech.

Bandhas are of four types,

• Prakriti : The nature of karmic elements attached to the Jiva.
• Sthiti : The time duration for which the karmic elements are attached to the Jiva.
• Anubhaga : The karmic elements are either harsh or soft in character.
• Pradesh Jiva : The number of particles in the karmic matter attached to the Jiva.

A Jiva entrapped in the vicious cycle of Karma is behaviourally destroyed and gets entrapped in bandhan. For this reason, he takes birth again and again and experiences imprisonment of the body.

7. Samvara : It is because of yoga that the karmic matter is attracted towards the Jiva. Hence it is extremely essential to stop this activity for the attainment of salvation. It is called Samvara. It is also called Asravanirodha which means to prevent the Karmas from entering our body. There are 57 ways to stop the Karma. These include self control, good thoughts, to avoid greed, attachment, pride, anger and evil deeds.

Because of these, a huge wall is erected around the Jiva that prevents the karmic elements from entering the Jiva. Just as it is feasible to stop the water flowing from a drain pipe by blocking the drain pipe, similarly it is possible to block the karmic elements from entering the Jiva through Samvara.

8. Nirjara : Nirjara means to remove the karmic elements from the Jiva. It is a major mean of destroying the karmic elements, accumulated by the Jiva. With Samvara, one can stop the growth and entry of Karmas in a Jiva. But the older Karmas that have been subjected to Asrava can be destroyed through Niijara. Nirjara involves meditation. Meditation destroys the karmic elements accumulated like fire and reduces them to ashes. In this manner when the veil of karmic elements is removed from the Jiva, then its pure form emerges. Just as a glass appears black when covered by a black cloth but when the cloth is removed, it retrieves its shine back.

9. Moksha : According to Jain philosophy, a man’s ultimate objective is attainment of Moksha or Nirvana. In this, the Jiva acquires freedom from all bonds. It is only with end of Karma, that man can attain Moksha. Hence Samvara and Nirjara is essential. To break the bond of Karmas, the Jains advocate to follow the Three Jewels of Jainism which are called Tri-Ratna. These are Right Belief, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. Moksha is the supreme objective of a Jiva. A person who attains Moksha is called siddha. Siddha is free from birth, death, joy and sorrow. He acquires immortal place in this universe.

Question 9.
Describe the importance of Five Mahavartas in Jainism.
Or
Discuss the five Mahavartas of Jainism.
Or
What is the importance of Five Mahavartas in Jainism? Elucidate.
Or
Describe the Five Anuvartas of Jainism.
Answer:
The Five Mahavartas of Jainism occupy a significant place. It is essential for every Jain to observe these rules. These rules are very hard for every Jain monk and nun. There is some relaxation in these for the householders. These rules are called Five Mahavartas in Jainism. These Mahavartas are also known as Anuvartas. A brief account of these is as follows :

1. Ahimsa : Jainism emphasises a lot on Ahimsa. Aacharanga Sutra emphasises on the importance of Ahimsa by saying, “One’s life is dear to everyone, all want happiness, no one desires sorrow, no one wants in excess, life is dear to everybody and all have a desire to live.” Hence, whatever is pleasurable for us is pleasurable for others as well. Violence is of two types : violence through the heart, and violence through Karma. Before violence comes in action or through Karma, violence first comes in one’s heart i.e. in one’s thoughts. Anger, pride, greed and fraud are forms of violence of the heart.

Hence, it is extremely important to purify the thoughts of the heart in order to avoid violence. According to Jainism, besides human beings, the Soul also resides in animals, stones and trees etc. Hence we should not give any trouble to the living or non-living beings. For this reason, the Jains walk barefoot, wear a cloth over the mouth, drink water after sieving and eat nothing after dark to avoid killing of any small creature. According to Harbans Singh and L.M. Joshi, “The doctrine of non-violence (ahimsa) is a cardinal principle of Jain religion.”

2. Satya : In Jainism great emphasis is laid on satya i.e. speaking of truth. We should always speak sweetly. By doing this one can cast its spell on the other person. One hurts its own self by speaking harsh, unpleasant and violent words. Such a person could never find solace. By speaking falsehood one increases its problems. There is no end to these problems. The consequence of falsehood is always disgracable. Therefore, we should never speak falsehood due to fear or due to any other cause. Therefore, we should think twice before speaking. We should not be angry with anybody.

In Jainism, it is emphasised that we should not put false blame on anybody. We should not deceive anybody. We should not waylay any honest person. We should not tie up any relation which is based on falsehood. We should never give false evidence in Panchayat or any other judicial court. Falsehood results in himsa (violence). Satya is the base of Ahimsa.

3. Asteya : The principle of Asteya is given special importance in Jainism. Asteya means not to steal. In Jainism theft is very encompassed. To steal a thing is a direct crime. On the other hand in Jainism if one uses a forgotten thing of others is also considered a theft. So we should not use the thing of any other person if it is not given by the owner. We shouldn’t enter the house of anybody unless called by the owner.

If allowed to enter we should not touch any thing kept in the house. We shouldn’t accept anything which is not given by the owner. We shouldn’t stay in anybody’s house unless told by the owner. Adulteration, abetment of theft, smuggling, use of false weights and measures, receiving stolen property and the like come under stealing. If a person commits theft once in his life time he borns in the house of poor. If he commits theft many times then he borns as a slave next time.

4. Aparigraha : In Jainism Aparigraha is given great importance. Aparigraha means non-attachment to worldly things. Generally it is seen that house holders used to accumulate more things than were required. It is not bad to accumulate the required things. But to accumulate them in large numbers is a sin. It deprives the other person of his right to have things. The more a person accumulates the more he remains mentally disturbed.

Today, men and nations are striving for enhancement of their wealth and territory at the cost of others. As a consequence the individual and national tensions are inceasing. The Jain monks and nuns are prohibited from taking more food clothes to wear and the like things than required. A person who strictly follows aparigraha attains Nirvana.

5. Brahmacharya : Brahmacharya is also given special importance in Jainism. It means to free oneself completely from sexual inclination. The Jain monks and nuns are strictly commanded to follow this rule. The Jain monks are strictly prohibited to come in contact with any women or talk with them. They should not even think of any women with whom they had any contact in the past even in their dreams. They should not visit any house where only a single lady lives. Similarly the Jain nuns are prohibited to think of men or to talk with them.

The house holder who abstains himself from the sexual contacts with all other women except his nuptial partner is observing brahmcharya. In Jainism sex passion is called an evil which ends life. Dr. K.C. Sogani aptly says, “The observance of these five vows is capable of bringing about individual as well as social progress. Thus, the Jaina faith and morals sum up the spiritual and moral living of the individual along with the social upliftment.”

Question 10.
Write about the main sects in Jainism.
Answer:
The Jains are divided into several sects. A few of the major sects have been briefly described as follows :

1. The Ajivika : The founder of the Ajivika sect was Goshala. He was the disciple of Lord Mahavira and got separated from him after 6 years. This sect was popular for its principle of niyati (luck). According to this, the destiny of every thing is pre¬determined. It cannot be changed by man’s efforts. This sect popularised by Goshala prospered till the 13th century and later it became non-existent.

2. The Digambara and Shvetambara Sects : The Digambara and Shvetambara sects were the most popular sects of Jainism. There was a terrible famine in Magadha during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. Hence Bhadrabahu, who was the leader of Jain monks went to Mysore (Karnataka) with a lot of monks. The monks who were left behind in Magadha appointed Sthoolbhadra as their leader. These monks organised a meeting in Pataliputra and gave their literature a new form.

They called this literature as Anga. Besides this, these monks gave up the practice of always being naked and started wearing white clothes. After 12 years, when Bhadrabahu came back to Magadha along with other monks they could not accept these changes. Consequently, the Jains were divided into two sects, the Digambara and Shvetambara. Digambara meant those who remained naked and Shvetambara meant those who wore white clothes. The main differences between the two sects are as follows :

1. The Digambaras remain naked while the Shvetambaras clad themselves in white clothes.
2. The Digambaras believe that women cannot attain salvation till they are born in the form of males. The Shvetambaras refute this principle. They feel that the women can attain salvation in this birth itself.
3. The Digambaras do not allow women to be a part of the Jain Sangha. On the other hand, the Shvetambara sect exerts no such restriction on the women. They say that Malli the 19th Tirthankara was a woman. The Digambaras refute this belief.
4. The Digambaras believe that Lord Mahavira did not get married. The Shvetambaras believe that Lord Mahavira was married. He had a daughter whose name was Priyadarshana.
5. Those belonging to the Digambara sect are of the view that the ascetics who attain enlightenment do not need any food whereas the Shvetambaras refute this.
6. The religious literature of Digambara and Shvetambara sects is different.
7. The idols of the Digambara sect are bare whereas those of Shvetambara sect are clad in clothes and they are decorated with ornaments.

3. Lonka Sect : The founder of this sect was Lonka Sa. He was a resident of Ahmedabad. In 1474 A.D., a Jain ascetic Jhanaji asked Lonka Sa to copy some religious Jain texts. While reading these texts, Lonka Sa realised that there was no mention of idol worship whereas the Jains had been indulging in idol worship for past so many centuries. Hence he vehemently opposed the prevalent system of idol worship in Jainism. This started a major controversy. Bhanaji was in agreement with the Lonka sect and thus became the first preacher (acharya) of Lonka sect.

4. Sthanakavasi : The founder of this sect was Viraji. He was a resident of Surat. The name of this new sect was Sthanakavasi because the saints of this sect lived in maths rather than temples. They led an extremely simple life. They did not believe in idol worship and pilgrimages.

5. Terapantha : The founder of this sect was Bhikanji of Marwar. It was established in 1706 A.D. There were 13 religious rules of this sect and hence the name of this sect came to be Terapanth. This sect also did not believe in idol worship. They emphasised strongly on meditation and discipline.

6. Taranapantha : This sect was established by Lord Tarana in Gwalior. The followers of this sect were against idol worship, the practices of religion and caste discrimination. They have separate temples in which the idols are not worshipped but the sacred texts are worshipped instead.

Question 11.
What are the main sects in Jainism? Explain their similarities and differences.
Or
Describe the sects Digambara and Shvetambra of Jainism.
Answer:
In Jainism great emphasis is laid on satya i.e. speaking of truth. We should always speak sweetly. By doing this one can cast its spell on the other person. One hurts its own self by speaking harsh, unpleasant and violent words. Such a person could never find solace. By speaking falsehood one increases its problems. There is no end to these problems. The consequence of falsehood is always disgracable. Therefore, we should never speak falsehood due to fear or due to any other cause. Therefore, we should think twice before speaking. We should not be angry with anybody.

In Jainism, it is emphasised that we should not put false blame on anybody. We should not deceive anybody. We should not waylay any honest person. We should not tie up any relation which is based on falsehood. We should never give false evidence in Panchayat or any other judicial court. Falsehood results in himsa (violence). Satya is the base of Ahimsa.

Question 12.
Explain the salient features of Jain Sangha.
Or
Discuss the Sangha discipline of Jainism.
Answer:
The Jain Sangha was established by Lord Mahavira in Pava. It appreciably contributed towards the growth of Jainism.

1. Member : Four kinds of people could join the Jain Sangha who were called monks (sharmana) and nuns (sadhvi) and laymen called upaska or sharavaka and laywomen called upasika or shravika. Monks and nuns were those, who had given up the materialistic world. Shravakas and shravikas were those who led a married life,

2. Initiation : Those people who wanted to join the Jain Sangha had to take permission from the parents and guardian. After this they had their head shaved off, took bath, wore white clothes and took an alms bowl for initiation by a major Jaip Acharya. This custom was called the Nishkarman Sanskara. Women too could join the Jain Sangha. The doors of the Jain Sangha were open for people of all castes. Only evil doers were not allowed to join the Jain Sangha.

3. Disciplined Life : After taking initiation, the monks and nuns had to lead a very disciplined life. They had to follow the Five Mahavratas of ahimsa, sunit, asteya, aparigriha and brahmacharya. They were prohibited from exercising violence on anyone from the heart, thought and body.

They were strictly prohibited from telling lies, stealing, keeping wealth with oneself, use of fragrant objects, shoes, umbrella, bed and chair etc. entering the others’ premises without permission, eating in the utensils of the household, excessive eating, eating after sunset, criticising someone, talking to a woman, staying at a house where a woman lived etc. Though married people were also asked to observe these rules, but not so strictly.

4. Daily Life : Each monk or nun divided his daily life into 8 parts. Of these, 4 parts were for study of the religious texts, 2 for meditation, 1 part for food consumption and 1 part for sleep. They ate their food after begging for it. They were prohibited from collecting alms from more than one house. All the members of Jain Sangha lived at one place during the four months of monsoon to study Jainism. During the rest of the eight months, they had to go to different places to preach Jainism.

5. Chief of the Jain Sangha : The chief of the Jain Sangha was called Acharya: He maintained control over all the monks of the Sangha. Only he had the right to render initiation, make member of the Sangha and award punishment to anyone. Only a very simple and a person of high character could be appointed to this post. The women had their separate Sanghas. Its chief was called Pravartini. Her main duty was to maintain discipline in the Sangha.

6. Role of Jain Sangha : The Jain Sangha played a vital role in the popularisation of Jainism in India. The monks and nuns who were working in these Sanghas left no stone unturned for the spread of Jainism. S.C. Ray Choudhary aptly writes, “In fact, it is mainly due to their efforts that Jainism took root into Indian soil and still survives.”

Question 13.
What is the language of Jain scriptures? Give preliminary information about Jain scriptures.
Or
Give preliminary information about the major Jain scriptures.
Or
Give information about the prominent scriptures of Jainism.
Or
What do you know almut the prominent scriptures of Jainism?
Or
Throw light on the prominent Jain scriptures.
Answer:
The Jains composed several religious texts. Of these, texts available to us are 45 in number. All these texts are associated with the Shvetambra sect of Jainism. These texts have been written in -either Prakrit or Ardhamagadhi which was the spoken language of common people of that time. These texts were given a written form in 5th century at a place called Vallabhi in Gujarat. These were completed by a popular Jain saint Devaridhi. These texts are divided into 6 parts.

Their names are :

• 12 Angas
• 12 Upangas
• 10 Prakirans
• 6 Chedasutras
• 4 Mulasutras
• 2 miscellaneous books.

A brief description of these is as follows :

1. The Twelve Angas : Of all the religious texts, the 12 Angas are considered to be the most sacred. A brief description and the names of these Angas are as given below :

• Aacharanga Sutra : It gives a description of the rules prescribed for the Jain monks and nuns. It also gives a description of the life of Mahavira.
• Sutrakritanga : It gives a description of the principles of Karma and Ahimsa and also about the sufferings of hell. Besides this, it also raises objection to the principles of the opposing religions with an objective to further strengthen the faith of the Jains in their religion.
• Sthananga : It gives a description of the various subjects of Jainism.
• Samavayanga : It gives a description of the Jain principles numericallly.
• Bhagvati Sutra : It is considered to be the most important text of the Jaina religious literature. It describes the Jain principles in question-answer form. These questions were put forward by the main disciple of Lord Mahavira i.e. Gautam Indrabhuti and were answered by Lord Mahavira.
• Jnatridharmakatha : It gives a description of the popular stories related to Jainism. These stories have been explained with instances.
• Upasakadasha : It gives a description of those 10 rich people of Lord Mahavira’s time who had become Mahavira’s disciples and those who attained salvation after great meditation.
• Antakriddasha : It gives a description of the lives of those Jain ascetics who attained salvation after great meditation.
• Anuttarapapatika : It also gives a description of the lives of some Jain hermits.
• Prashna Vyakarana : It gives a description of the five mahavratas and the five annuvratas.
• Vipaka Sutra : It describes the fruits of the good and evil deeds.
• Drishtivada : This part has now become non-existent.

From the other texts, one can get information related to this part on the basis of which one can interpret that it gives a brief description of the various principles.

2. The Twelve Upangas : Each Anga has an Upanga. It gives information on astrology, geography and universe etc. At certain places, there is a mention of historical events of all the twelve Upangas. The most popular Upanga is Rajapaseniya. It gives a description of the conversation between the Jain ascetic Kesha and a king called Payosa.

3. The Ten Prakirans : These give information about the various subjects of Jainism in prose form. These give important information about the life and preachings of Lord Mahavira.

4. The Six Chedasutras : These give a description of the behavioural norms set for the Jain monks and nuns. Of all the Chedasutras, the most popular one is Kalpasutra. It was composed by Bhadrabahu. It gives a detailed description of the life history of Lord Mahavira.

5. The Four Mulasutras : The four Mulasutras namely Uttaradhyayana, Avashyaka, Dashvaikalika and Pindaniryukti are considered valuable in Jain literature. They give a description of the stories related to Jainism and the moral teachings, rules of Jain Sangha and the life and teachings of some Jain asectics. They are in their original form.

6. Two Miscellanous Texts : These include texts by the name of Nandisutra and Anuyogadvara. They are a kind of encyclopaedia. These give information related to the various branches and religious principles of Jainism.

7. Books related with Digambara Sect : The Digambaras maintain that the original texts containing Mahavira’s teachings are lost.They revere only the four scriptures namely-Prathamanuyoga. Karananuyoga, Charananuyoga and Dravyanuyoga.

Question 14.
What is the legacy of Jainism to Indian Civilization?
Answer:
There is no doubt about the fact that Jainism could not prosper like Buddhism but still it left a great impact on the social, religious, cultural and political fields in India.

1. Legacy in the Social Field : The Jains played an important role in the social field. In the sixth century, the caste system became very stringent in Hinduism. People belonging to one caste despised people belonging to the other caste. The people of the Shudra caste were treated badly like animals. Mahavira vehemently opposed the caste system. He admitted people of every religion into Jainism. He preached mutual brotherhood and equality among people. Consequently, he was successful in eradicating mutual hatred prevalent among people to quite an extent. In this manner, the Jains gave a new form to Indian society.

2. Legacy in the Religious Field : The Jains coptributed appreciably towards the religious field. Jainism inspired people to lead a simple and pious life. There was no room for useless rituals and customs, yajnas and sacrifices etc. Because of the efforts of Jainism, several superstitions prevalent in the religious field were eradicated. Seeing the growing popularity of Jainism, the leaders of Hinduism made some important amendments in the religion in order to reform it.

3. Legacy in the Cultural Field : Jainism contributed greatly in the cultural field also. The principles of Jainism were written in their texts in Prakrit, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, Kannada and Tamil languages. Consequently, it gave a lot of encouragement to these regional languages. Though, it mainly describes the issues pertaining to religion, yet it also gives important information about the social and political condition. For this reason, these Jain texts are considered to be valuable source of Indian History.

The Jains constructed several influential and famous temples. Several attractive idols were placed in them. The Jain temples of Mount Abu in Rajasthan and Shravana Belagola in Karnataka are famous not only in India but the entire world. Besides these, the Jains constructed several popular stupas in India.

4. Legacy in the Field of Public Welfare : Lord Mahavira preached about social service among his disciples. For this reason, the Jains constructed several dharmashalas to give facilities to the people. To propagate education, the Jains established educational institutes, hospitals for human beings and animals and several other works of public welfare. Several of the educational institutes established by the Jains are popular even today. Free treatment is given to the poor sick people in the hospitals established by the Jains even today and so are the animals taken care of.

5. Legacy in the Political Field : Jainism lays a lot of emphasis on the principle of Ahimsa. It inspired the people to lead a peaceful life. Consequently, several kings stopped participating in battles so that the innocent people were not killed. They became peace loving. For this reason, India experienced peace and prosperity for quite some time but on the other hand it had an adverse impact on Indian polity. Due to lack of participation in battles the Indian army grew weak. Consequently, later they could not face the foreign invasions. For this reason, the Indians had to live under foreign rule for several years.

To conclude, we can say that the Jains gave valuable contribution in several fields of Indian society. In the end, we agree with the words of Dr. V.A. Sangve, “In fact, the most outstanding characteristic of Jains in India is their very impressive record of contributions to Indian culture. In comparison with the limited and small population of Jains, the achievements of Jains in enriching the various aspects of Indian culture are really great.”

Short Answer Type Questions (Type-1):

Question 1.
What do you mean by Tirthankara?
Answer:
Acharyas are called Tirthankara. Tirthankara means a guru who helps to cross the ocean of life. The jains believed in 24 Tirthankaras. The First Tirthankaras was Rishabhanatha. The 23rd Tirthankaras was Parshavanatha. He was born 250 ears before Lord Mahavira. The 24rd Tirthankaras was Lord Mahavira. He is msidered the actual founder of Jainism.

Question 2.
Parshavanatha.
Answer:
Parshavanatha was the 23th Tirthankara of Jainism. The teachings of Parshavanatha were :

1. Do not harm the living beings (ahimsa).
2. Do not tell lies (sunrita).
3. Do not take without giving, (asteya).
4. Do not desire any materialistic things (aparigraha). Around 777 B.C., he attained Nirvana at a mountain called Mount Sammeta.

Question 3.
Write a short note on Lord Mahavira.
Answer:
Lord Mahavira was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali in 599 B.C. The name of his father was Siddhartha and the name of his mother was Trishala. The childhood name of Mahavira was Vardhmana. Mahavira was married to a beautiful princess named Yashoda. Mahavira renounced the world at the age of 30. He got enlightenment after hard penance of 12 years. He preached his knowledge in order to remove darkness from the minds of people. Rajgriha, Vaishali, Kosala, Mithila, Videha and Anga were his famous preaching centres. He attained his salvation at Pava in 527 B.C.

Question 4.
Discuss about the teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Or
Teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Answer:
The teachings of Lord Mahavira were very simple and impressive. According to him, the ultimate aim of life is to attain salvation. Accordingly, he taught his followers to follow Tri-Ratnas :

• right belief
• right knowledge
• and right conduct.

He believed in hard penance. He laid more emphasis on non-violence. According to him, besides human beings and animals, we should not harm even birds, plants and trees. He believed in the doctrines of karma and transmigration of soul. He preached equality and universal brotherhood of mankind. He inspired the people to lead a simple and pure life. He believed in the worship of Tirthankaras.

Question 5.
What is meant by Tri-Ratnas? What is its importance?
Or
Write about the Tri-Ratnas of Jainism.
Answer:
According to Jainism, the ultimate aim of a man’s life is to attain salvation. In order to achieve it, it is utmost necessary for every person to follow Tri-Ratnas. These three Ratnas are right belief, right knowledge and right conduct. According to first Ratna, every man should have firm faith in 24 Tirthankaras, 9 truths and the Jain scriptures. According to second Ratna, the Jains should attain true and complete knowledge. It can be acquired through deep study of sermons of Tirthankaras. According to third Ratna, one should spend one’s life with right conduct taught by Jainism. All these three Ratnas go side by side.

Question 6.
What is the importance of AJijUqsa in Jainism?
Answer:
Jainism emphasises a lot on Ahimsa. Aacharanga Sutra emphasises on tl imnortance of Ahimsa bv savine. “One’s life is dear to evervone. all want hanDiness. one desires sorrow, no one wants in excess, life is dear to everybody and all have a desire to live.” Hence, whatever is pleasurable for us is pleasurable for others as well. The Soul also resides in animals, stones and trees etc. Hence we should not give any trouble to the living or non-living beings. For this reason, the Jains walk barefoot, wear a cloth over the mouth, drink water after sieving and eat nothing after dark to avoid killing of any small creature.

Question 7.
What is the importance of Karma Theory in Jain Philosophy?
Answer:
In Jainism, the Karma theoiy has a significant place. According to this theory, as soon as one has a good or a bad thought, it immediately attaches itself to the Jiva (Self) just as the dust particles stick themselves to the oily body. These Karmas are of eight types :

1. Gyanvamiya Karmas
2. Darshanvamiya Karmas
3. Vaidniya Karmas
4. Mohniya Karmas
5. Ayu Karmas
6. Naam Karmas
7. Gotra Karmas
8. Antriya Karmas.

Because of one’s Karmas, man is trapped in the vicious circle of transmigration. Man can obtain freedom by destroying one’s Karmas.

Question 8.
What is meant by Papa and Punya in the Jainism?
Answer:

• Papa : Papa is considered to be the main cause for the bonds of a creature. Killing of creatures, telling lies, stealing, greed, attachment, pride, forgery, drug abuse and enemity etc. lead to an increase in the bulk of the Papa. The evil doers are subjected to great punishments. According to Jain Sutras, there are 82 different consequences of Papa (evil).
• Punya : Punya is that Karma that is earned through good deeds. There are different ways of earning Punya. Giving food to the hungry, giving water to the thirsty, giving clothes to the naked, to care for others and serving them, speaking sweetly etc. are actions of Punya. There are 42 means of deserving Punya.

Question 9.
Write a note on Digambara and Svetambara.
Or
What do you understand by Digambara and Svetambara?
Answer:

• The followers of Digambara sect live naked whereas the followers of Svetambara sect wore white clothes.
• The Digambara sect does not allow women to join Jain Sanghas wheres Svetambara sect does not impose any such restriction.
• The followers of Digambara sect are of the opinion that women cannot get salvation unless they take birth as men.

The followers of Svetambara sect do not believe in this doctrine. They are of the view that women can get salvation in their present life.

Question 10.
Why could not Jainism become popular in India?
Answer:
In spite of its high ideals Jainism could not gain much popularity in India lue to many reasons. Firstly, Jainism lacked effective machinery to propagate and onvey its message to the common people. Secondly, though Jainism received royal

Question 3.
Describe any four features of Akal Purkh (God) in Sikhism.
Answer:

• Guru Nanak Dev Ji believed in one God only,
• God has two forms. He is Nirguna (without attributes) as well as Saguna (with attributes),
• By his order (Hukam) the universe came into existence,
• He is beyond the cycle of birth, death and rebirth.

Question 4.
What is the importance of remembering Divine Name in Sikhism?
Answer:
Remembering the Divine Name or Simran is considered to be the highest form of worship of God. Guru Nanak Dev Ji said that on one hand remembering the Divine Name eradicates all sins of the heart, on the other hand it becomes placid. For this reason, man’s sorrows come to an end. All his fears are dispelled. By remembering the Divine Name, a man’s works are accomplished easily because God himself helps him in all his works. A person who remembers the Divine Name of God, has a soul that is always gentle and fragrant like a lotus flower. A person who remembers the Divine Name is able to awim across the vicious circle of transmigration. Without Name, man’s life on this earth is futile.

Question 5.
What is the meaning of Honest Labour?
Answer:
Kirat means honest labour. Honest labour is extremely important. It is the ordain of the Absolute (Hukam). We observe everyday that every creature earns his livelihood through Kirat. Hence the need for honest labour is extremely essential for man because he is the head of all creatures. Kirat is essential to keep the body healthy that shelters in it the Supreme soul. A person who does not perform honest labour cannot keep his body fit. Such a person actually performs a sin against the Absolute. But he is strictly prohibited from earning means of theft, robbery, dacoity,- fraud, bribery and evil.

Question 6.
What is the importance of Sangat in Sikhism?
Answer:
Sangat or Sadh Sangat is crux of Sikhism. The foundation of this institution was laid by Guru Nanak Dev Ji at Kartarpur. Wherever he went, the Sangat was formed there. Sangat implies ‘a congregation of the Gurmu lovers where they praised God.’ Every woman or man without any discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour, religion, rich, poor etc. could join it. The basic principle of Sikhism lies in the belief that the God Himself resides in the Sangat. Thus the life of a person who is a part of the Sangat completely changes.

Question 7.
What is the importance of Pangat in Sikh Way of life?
Or
Write a short note on the Pangat.
Answer:
The institution of Pangat has a commendable role to play in the development f Sikhism. Guru Nanak Dev Ji had laid the foundation of this important institution i Kartarpur. Every woman or man without any discrimination on the basis of caste, religion, creed, rich or poor etc. could join the Pangak Everyone had equal rights to serve. Due to this reason, the feeling of mutual brotherhood among the Sikhs developed.

It gave respect to the lower castes which had been oppressed by the higher classes for centuries. The money for this Langar was donated by the Sikhs of the Guru. This helped them develop the habit of donation and charity. Due to the institution of Pangat, the popularity of Sikhism spread far and wide.

Question 8.
What is the importance of Sangat and Pangat in Sikhism? Elucidate.
Answer:
Sangat or Sadh Sangat is crux of Sikhism. The foundation of this institution was laid by Guru Nanak Dev Ji at Kartarpur. Wherever he went, the Sangat was formed there. Sangat implies ‘a congregation of the Gurmu lovers where they praised God.’ Every woman or man without any discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour, religion, rich, poor etc. could join it. The basic principle of Sikhism lies in the belief that the God Himself resides in the Sangat. Thus the life of a person who is a part of the Sangat completely changes.

The institution of Pangat has a commendable role to play in the development f Sikhism. Guru Nanak Dev Ji had laid the foundation of this important institution i Kartarpur. Every woman or man without any discrimination on the basis of caste, religion, creed, rich or poor etc. could join the Pangak Everyone had equal rights to serve. Due to this reason, the feeling of mutual brotherhood among the Sikhs developed.

It gave respect to the lower castes which had been oppressed by the higher classes for centuries. The money for this Langar was donated by the Sikhs of the Guru. This helped them develop the habit of donation and charity. Due to the institution of Pangat, the popularity of Sikhism spread far and wide.

Question 9.
Describe the concept of Hukam in Sikhism.
Answer:
Hukam is an important concept of Sikh philosophy. The word Hukam is derived from an Arabic word that means order, commandment or instruction. The Hukam of the Absolute is to be accepted as sweet as has been mentioned at several places in the Gurbani. Guru Nanak Dev Ji writes in the ‘Japji’ that the entire universe has been created in accordance to the Hukam of God. It is because of the Hukam that they become good or evil and receive joy or sorrow. They can acquire freedom from their sins or remain entrapped in the vicious circle of transmigration because of Hukam.

Question 10.
What is meant by Haumai in Sikhism?
Answer:
The concept of Haumai (ego) has been described again and again in Sikh philosophy. Haumai means ‘Ego’ or T. It is a boundary that separates a creature’s soul from the omnipotent Supreme Soul. It would be no exaggeration to call the Haumai of the individual as a powerful fort of T. Because of Haumai, man can form a world of his own with his thoughts. In it, the Haumai or his ego is very strong. Consequently, he loses his true individuality.

Question 11.
“Ego is deep rooted disease.” How?
Answer:
Haumai is a chronic disease, that when afflicts a person like cancer is difficult to cure. It is the creator of the five vices-lust, anger, greed, attachment and pride. Such a man tells lies of several kinds, indulges in extravagance and takes the help of several false acts. Consequently it gives rise to the evil. It takes such a frightening form that life turns hell. A man who is filled with Haumai distances himself from the Supreme Soul and remains entrapped in the vicious circle of birth and death.

Question 12.
What is the importance of Guru in the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev Ji?
Or
What was the concept of ‘Guru’ of Guru Nanak Dev Ji?
Answer:
Guru has an important place in Sikh philosophy. Sikh Gurus consider the ‘Guru’ extremely important to reach die’Almighty. According to them, Guru is tb true ladder to attain salvation. Without1 the Guru, man can see darkness all around. It is the Guru who helps an individual to move from darkness (ignorance) to light (enlightenment). A Guru helps a person to cure his diseases of attachment to maya and Haumai. It is he who describes’ the method of treading on the path of devotion by the recitation of Naam and Shabads A Guru is not possible without feelings of devotion and knowledge. A Guru can make the impossible possible and it can transform a person’s lifestyle completely.

Question 13.
What is the importance of Kirtan in Sikhism?
Or
Kirtan is very important in the Sikh way of life.
Answer:
The Kirtan holds an important position in Sikhism. It is considered to be the highest means of attainment of spiritualism. In almost all the traditions of Sikhism, Kirtan is performed. Kirtan means that form of singing in which there is praise of the Akal Purakh. Singing the Gurbani according to ragas is called Kirtan. It was Guru Nanak Dev Ji who started the practice of Kirtan in Sikhism. He was accompanied by Bhai Mardana Ji who throughout his travels used to play the Rabab at the time of Kirtan. Kirtan performed with a sense of love and devotion influences a man’s soul to the core.

This awakens the dead souls of people and renders them free of all sufferings and cleanses his heart of all evil. He remains engrossed in recitation of Nam. It humbles a person’s heart. His soul feels devoted and happy and his life emerges out to be successful. For this reason, Kirtan has often been referred to as invaluable.

Question 14.
Explain the importance of Seva in Sikhism.
Answer:
Special importance has been given to Seva in Sikh philosophy. There is no doubt that there has been a glorious description about Seva in every religion but the importance that has been given to it in Sikhism is far greater than any other religion. Seva is actually devotion of high order. It can prove to be fruitful only when it is performed without any selfish motive. A man doesn’t receive the privilege of performing Seva till he removes the feeling of Haumai.

Question 15.
What were the views of Sikh Gurus regarding Caste?
Or
Describe the views of Guru Nanak Sahib Ji regarding Caste System.
Answer:
During Guru Nanak Dev Ji’s itme, Hindu Society was not only divided into four major castes—Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra—but also divided into several sub-castes. The people belonging to higher castes took great pride in themselves md looked down upon the people of lower caste and inflicted great atrocities on them, ntouchability was quite prevalent in society. Guru Nanak Dev Ji vehemently opposed e caste system and untouchability. Guru Sahib said that in God’s court there is no estion of caste-creed but a calculation of ones Karmas only. Guru Sahib initiated ; practices of ‘Sangat’ and ‘Pangat’ to provide .a severe jolt to caste system.

Question 16.
Explain the significance of Ardaas (Prayer) in Sikhism.
Or
What is the significance of Ardaas (Prayer) in Sikhism?
Answer:
Though the Ardaas forms a part of all religions but it occupies a special position in Sikhism. The word Ardaas has been derived from a Persian word Araz Dast which means to request before someone. Ardaas is that key in Sikhism that opens the gates to the abode of God. The system of performing the Ardaas in Sikhism was initiated by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. There is no fixed time for Ardaas. It can be offered at anytime by anyone. An Ardaas performed sincerely definitely bears fruit. There are several instances for this in Sikh History.

Short Answer Type Questions (Type-2):

Question 1.
Write a short note on Lord Parshavanatha.
Answer:
Lord Parshavanatha was born 250 years before Lord Mahavira at the house of King Ashvasena in Banaras. The name of his mother was Vamadevi. He had a luxurious childhood. At the age of 30 years, Parshavanatha gave up all the pleasures of life and went out in search of true knowledge. He attained enlightenment after 83 days of meditation. He spent the rest of the 70 years of life in preaching. Around 777 B.C., he attained Nirvana at a mountain called Mount Sammeta. The teachings of Parshavanatha are called Chaturyama or the four pledges. These four pledges are :

• Do not harm the living beings (ahimsa).
• Do not tell lies (sunrita).
• Do not take without giving, (asteya).
• Do not desire any materialistic things (aparigraha).

Question 2.
Write a short note on Lord Mahavira.
Answer:
Lord Mahavira was the 24th Tirathankara of Jainism. He is considered as the real founder of Jainism. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali in 599 B.C. The name of his father was Siddhartha and the name of his mother was Trishala. The childhood name of Mahavira was Vardhmana. He was very meditative in his childhood. He took little interest in worldly affairs. Mahavira was married to a beautiful princess named Yashoda. A daughter was born to them and she was named Priyadarshana. Mahavira renounced the world at the age of 30. He got enlightenment after hard penance of 12 years.

He preached his knowledge in order to remove darkness from the minds of people. Rajgriha, Vaishali, Kosala, Mithila, Videha and Anga were his famous preaching centres. Mahavira laid emphasis on Tri-Ratnas, non-violence, hard penance and right conduct etc. He did not believe in yajnas, sacrifices, Vedas, Sanskrit language and the existence of God. He attained his salvation at Pava in 527 B.C. Undoubtedly, his contribution was invaluable for the development of Jainism.

Question 3.
Discuss about the teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Or
Discuss the pre-eminent teachings of Jainism.
Or
Discuss briefly the teachings of Lord Mahavira.
Or
What are the main teachings of Jainism?
Answer: The teachings of Lord Mahavira were very simple and impressive. According to him, the ultimate aim of life is to attain salvation. Accordingly, he taught his followers to follow Tri-Ratnas :

• right belief
• right knowledge
• and right conduct.

He believed in hard penance. He laid more emphasis on non-violence. According to him, besides human beings apd animals, we should not harm even birds, plants and trees. He believed in the doctfines of karma and transmigration of soul. He preached equality and universal brotherhood of mankind. He inspired the people to lead a simple and pure life. He condemned in strong words, the false rituals and yajnas which were prevalent in Hinduism.

He did not believe in the purity of Vedas and Sanskrit language. He preached in the common language of the people. He did not believe in the existence of God. He asserted that man is the architect of his own fate. He does not need any help from God. The man will get the reward of his deeds. He believed in worshipping Tirthankaras.

Question 4.
What is meant by Tri-Ratnas? What is its importance?
Or
Write about the Tri-Ratnas of Jainism.
Answer:
According to Jainism, the ultimate aim of a man’s life is to attain salvation. In order to achieve it, it is utmost necessary for every person to follow Tri-Ratnas. These three Ratnas are right belief, right knowledge and right conduct. According to first Ratna, every man should have firm faith in 24 Tirthankaras, 9 truths and the Jain scriptures. According to second Ratna, the Jains should attain true and complete knowledge. It can be acquired through deep study of sermons of Tirathankaras. There are two forms of this knowledge, direct and indirect.

The direct knowledge is that knowledge which is received by soul and indirect knowledge is that knowledge which is received through senses. According to third Ratna, one should spend one’s life with right conduct taught by Jainism. All these three Ratnas go side by side. The absence of anyone of these cannot lead a man to his destination. For example, oil, wick and fire are necessary for a lamp to give light. If anyone of these things is missing, it cannot give light.

Question 5.
What is the importance of Ahimsa in Jainism?
Answer:
Jainism emphasises a lot on Ahimsa. Aacharanga Sutra emphasises on the importance of Ahimsa by saying, “One’s life is dear to everyone, all want happiness, no one desires sorrow, no one wants in excess, life is dear to everybody and all have a desire to live.” Hence, whatever is pleasurable for us is pleasurable for others as well. Violence is of two types : violence through the heart and violence through Karma. Before violence comes in action or through Karma, violence first comes in one’s heart i.e. in one’s thoughts. Anger, pride, greed and fraud are forms of violence of the heart.

Hence, it is extremely important to purify the thoughts of the heart in order to avoid violence. The Soul also resides in animals, stones and trees etc. Hence we should not give any trouble to the living or non-living beings. For this reason, the Jains walk barefoot, wear a cloth over the mouth, drink water after sieving and eat nothing after dark to avoid killing of any small creature.

Question 6.
Write a short note on the Nine Truths of the Jainism.
Answer:
Jain philosophy teaches that there are Nine Truths.

These truths are :

1. Jiva—In Jain Philosophy, the Jiva means atman or souk It is eternal and absolute. It enjoys or suffers the fruits of its deeds.
2. Ajiva—It is the non-living element. It does not have the power to think. It has two types. One that has form (Rupi) and one that is formless (Arupi)
3. Punya—It is consequence of good actions. There are nine .ways to merit.
4. Papa—It is the main cause of the bondage of Jiva. Papa results in terrible punishments.
5. Asarva—It is the process of accumulation of deeds or karmic matter by the soul. The Karmas are of eight types.
6. Samvara—The process that prevents the Karma to come near the Self is called samvara. There are 57 ways to inhibit the Karma.
7. Bandha—It means bondage. It is the union of Jiva with Pudgala. There are 5 reasons responsible for bondage.
8. Nirjara—It means to eradicate. It helps to destroy Karma.
9. Moksha—In this, the creature is freed from the vicious circle of Karma. It is a state of complete peace wherein he attains freedom from all kinds of sorrows.

Question 7.
What is the importance of Karma Theory in Jain Philosophy?
Answer:
In Jainism, the Karma theory has a significant place. According to this theory, as soon as one has a good or a bad thought, it immediately attaches itself to the Jiva (Self) just as the dust particles stick themselves to the oily body. These Karmas are of -eight types :

1. Gyanvamiya Karmas—They inhibit the knowledge of Self.
2. Darshanvamiya Karmqs—They inhibit the desire of the Self.
3. Vaidniya Karmas— These actions lead to happiness and sorrow.
4. Mohniya Karmas—These are Karmas that entrap the Self in the vicious circle of attachment.
5. Ayu Karmas—These Karmas determine the age of a person.
6. Naam Karmas—These Karmas determine the personality of a person.
7. Gotra Karmas—These determine the gotra and hence his higher and lower status in society.
8. Antriya Karmas—These are Karmas that inhibit good Karmas. Because of one’s Karmas, man is trapped in the vicious circle of transmigration. Man can obtain freedom by destroying one’s Karmas.

Question 8.
What is meant by Jiva and Ajiva in the Jainism?
Or
What is meant by Jiva in Jainism?
Answer:
1. Jiva : The world Jiva means Soul. It is a living entity. There are two types pf Jiva in Jain philosophy. They are also called worldly creatures and free creatures. Worldly creatures are also called bonded creatures. This creature is trapped in the vicious cycle of transmigration and keeps taking birth again and again according to One’s actions and receives the good and bad fruit. A free creature is one that is free from rebirth. This creature is one with unlimited knowledge, unlimited power and unlimited qualities. This creature is free from the web of Karma.

(2) Ajiva : Ajiva implies those non-living elements which have no life in them like books, paper, table and ink etc. As an example, Jiva expands in the body of the camel till it becomes as big as a camel and Jiva contracts in the body of the ant till it becomes as small as an ant. This Jiva is not visible but one can experience its presence on the basis of the actions of the body. But when the body ceases to exist, then the Jiva also becomes non-existent. The Jiva acquires the form of the body that it occupies.

Question 9.
What is meant by Papa and Punya in the Jainism?
Answer:
1. Papa : Papa is considered to be the main cause for the bonds of a creature. Killing of creatures, telling lies, stealing, greed, attachment, pride, forgery, drug abuse and enemity etc. lead to an increase in the bulk of the Papa. The evil doers are subjected to great punishments. You must have seen that two real brothers born in the same house have great disparity in their lives. One may be designated at a high post and may acquire great fame. The other flees from pillar to post, indulges ih stealing and earns a bad name. Why does this happen?

According to Jain philosophy, there is a reason for such a person earning Punya and Papa. An evil doer can never be happy and has to suffer grave problems in his life. Even his Soul keeps suffering. According to Jain Sutras, there are 82 different consequences of Papa (evil).

2. Punya : Punya is that Karma that is earned through good deeds. There are different ways of earning Punya. Giving food to the hungry, giving water to the thirsty, giving clothes to the naked, to care for others and serving them, speaking sweetly etc. are actions of Punya. There are 42 means of deserving Punya. Good health, financial prosperity, fame, good marital life, good relatives, having good friends, good education and appointment to high posts etc. are consequences of good Punya. Punya is considered to be an aid to the Self because it gives happiness.

Question 10.
What was the importance of Mahavira’s teachings in the life of a common man?
Answer:
The teachings of Mahavira were very important for common people. At that time the caste system had become very rigid and complex in Hinduism. High caste people hated the low caste people. Mahavira opposed caste system. Mahavira opened the gates to people of different categories for his religion. This helped to overcome the feeling of mutual hatred and the feeling of brotherhood and affection spread among people. Mahavira strongly denounced the prevalent superstitions in the society.

Common people were against such rituals, so the “teachings of Mahavira had great impact on their minds. Because of Mahavira’s policy of non-violence, people started hating wars and became the votaries of peace. Mahavira advised the people to serve the people and the society as well. Consequently, the Jains built many inns, hospitals, schools and other institutions of public utility.

Question 11.
What type of life a Jain monk had to lead according to the teachings of Mahavira?
Answer:
According to the teachings of Mahavira, a Jain monk should lead a very pure life. Every monk had to take five vows :

1. He had to always speak the truth.
2. He had to follow the policy of non-violence.
3. He should not keep anything with him which he had not got in charity.
4. He could not keep any money with him.
5. He had to follow Brahmacharya i.e.,

he had to shun all pleasures. It was essential for a wear simple clothes and eat simple food. He was restrained from using umbrellas or perfumes. He was not allowed to talk to any woman. He was asked to speak softly so that he did not hurt anybody. He had to take care that he did not kill even germs while walking or eating.

Question 12.
Write a note on Digambara and Svetambara.
Or
What do you understand by Digambara and Svetambara?
Answer:
Among all the sects of Jainism the Digambara and Svetambara sects were most prominent. Digambara meant those who remained naked and Svetambara meant those who wore white clothes. The main differences between these two sects were as follows :

• The followers of Digambara sect live naked whereas the followers of Svetambara sect wore white clothes.
• The Digambara sect does not allow women to join Jain Sanghas wheres Svetambara sect does not impose any such restriction.
• The followers of Digambara sect are of the opinion that women cannot get salvation unless they take birth as men. The followers of Svetambara sect do not believe in this doctrine. They are of the view that women can get salvation in their present life.
• The followers of Digambara sect are of the opinion that Lord Mahavira did not marry. The followers of Svetambar sect believe that Lord Mahavira married and had a daughter whose name was Priyadarshna.
• The literature of Digambra and Svetambra sects is different.
• The idols of the Digambara sect are naked whereas the idols of Svetambara sect are dressed and decorated with ornaments.

Question 13.
Why could not Jainism become popular in India?
Answer:
In spite of its high ideals Jainism could not gain much popularity in India due to many reasons. Firstly, Jainism lacked effective machinery to propagate and convey its message to the common people. Secondly, though Jainism received royal patronage from the rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru and Kharvela yet this patronage was too meagre to elevate Jainism to the height of its glory. Thirdly, Jainism laid too much emphasis on hard penance, austerity and self-mortification. As these high ideals were too difficult to be practised by the common people so they did not join Jainism en- masse.

Fourthly, in Jainism too much emphasis is laid.on Ahimsa. Even the unconscious killing of an ant while walking was considered a sin. Such strictness and rigidity, instead of drawing people closer to Jainism, kept them away. Fifthly, the rise of Buddhism with its simple principles, was one of the major reasons of waning popularity of Jainism. Sixthly, with the passage of time Jainism adopted some principles of Hinduism. As a consequence Jainism found it difficult to maintain its separate identity.

Question 14.
The Jain Sources.
Answer:
The Jain sources throw ample light on the history of ancient India. The Jains composed several religious texts. These texts were written in Prakrit or Ardhamagadhi which was the common language of communication at that time. Twelve Angas of the Jains are considered most important and sacred. These throw light on the life of Mahavira and principles of Jainism. There are 12 Upangas in Jainism. The 10 Prakirans of Jainism give information about the life of Mahavira and his sermons. The 6 Chedasutras describe the rules for the Jain monks. The 4 Mulasutras are considered valuable for Jain literature. They give us important information about the stories related to Jainism.

Question 15.
What is the legacy of the Jainism to the Indian Civilization?
Answer:
Jainism gave valuable contribution to the Indian Civilization in many fields. Mahavira condemned caste-system vigorously. He included people of all castes in his religion. He preached equality and universal brotherhood of mankind. Consequently, the widespread hatred in society was removed to a large extent. Jainism inspired people to lead a simple and pure life. Due to its efforts, many superstitions prevalent in society came to an end.

Being influenced by the increasing fame of Jainism, the leaders of Hinduism introduced necessary reforms into it. The scholars of Jainism wrote their scriptures in many languages. These scriptures are invaluable sources of Indian history. The Jains got built many significant and famous temples. As a result, Indian architecture got a new impetus. Jainism got built several inns, educational institutions and hospitals etc. for the welfare of the people, which exist even today. Jainism gave the message of peace. It was against wars. It had adverse effect on the politics of India.

Answer in One Word to One Sentence:

Question 1.
What is meant by the word ‘Jain’?
Answer:
Conqueror.

Question 2.
By what name was Jainism originally known?
Answer:
Nirgrantha.

Question 3.
What is meant by Nirgrantha?
Answer:
Freedom from bondage.

Question 4.
By what other name the Jain Acharyas are known?
Answer:
Tirthankaras.

Question 5.
What is meant by Tirthankara?
Answer:
Tirthankara means builder of the bridge or the Guru who ferries across the ocean of the world.

Question 6.
Jainism had how many Tirthankaras?
Answer:
24 Tirthankaras.

Question 7.
Who was the first Jain Tirthankara?
Or
Name the first Tirthankara in Jainism.
Answer:
Rishabanatha.

Question 8.
Who was the 23rd Tirathankara of Jainism?
Answer:
Parshavanatha.

Question 9.
Where was Swami Parshavanatha born?
Answer:
Banaras.

Question 10.
Who was Swami Parshavanatha’s father?
Answer:
Swami Parshavanatha’s father was king Ashavasena of Banaras.

Question 11.
At what age Swami Parshavanatha renounced his home?
Answer:
30 years.

Question 12.
For how long did Parshavanatha went into, austere meditation?
Answer:
83 days.

Question 13.
How many principles of conduct did Parshavanatha enunciate?
Answer:
He enunciated four principles.

Question 14.
What are the teachings of Parshavanatha called?
Answer:
Chatuiyama.

Question 15.
Mention any one principle of Swami Parshavanatha.
Answer:
Do not tell a lie.

Question 16.
For how many years Lord Parshavanatha preached?
Answer:
Lord Parshavanatha preached for 70 years.

Question 17.
When did Lord Parshavanatha attain Nirvana?
Answer:
777 B.C.

Question 18.
Who was the founder of Jainism and as Tirathankar what was his place?
Answer:
Mahavir Swami was the founder of Jainism and he was 24th Tirathankar.

Question 19.
Who was the last Tirthankara of the Jains?
Or
Who was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jains?
Answer:
Swami Mahavira.

Question 20.
When and where was Lord Mahavira born?
Answer:
599 B.C. at Kundagrama.

Question 21.
Who was the father of Lord Mahavira?
Answer:
Siddhartha.

Question 22.
What was the name of Lord Mahavira’s mother?
Answer:
Trishla.

Question 23.
How many dreams Trishla had before Lord Mahavira was born?
Answer:
14.

Question 24.
What was Lord Mahavira’s original name?
Answer:
Vardhmana.

Question 25.
To which clan did Lord Mahavira belong?
Answer:
Jantrika.

Question 26.
To whom was Lord Mahavira married?
Answer:
Yashoda.

Question 27.
What was the name of Mahavira’s daughter?
Answer:
Priyadarshana.

Question 28.
What was Mahavira’s age at the time of renunciation?
Answer:
30 years.

Question 29.
For how many years Lord Mahavira meditated?
Answer:
12 years.

Question 30.
When did Lord Mahavira attain enlightenment?
Answer:
At the age of 42.

Question 31.
What is meant by Kevala Jnana?
Answer:
Supreme truth.

Question 32.
For how long Lord Mahavira preached?
Answer:
30 years.

Question 33.
Mention any two famous centres of Mahavira’s preachings.
Answer:

• Rajgriha,
• Vaishali.

Question 34.
When did Lord Mahavira attain Nirvana?
Answer:
527 B.C.

Question 35.
Where did Lord Mahavira attain Nirvana?
Answer:
Pava.

Question 36.
At what age Lord Mahavira attain Nirvana?
Answer:
72 years.

Question 37.
Give the main teaching of Jainism.
Answer:
It believed in Ahimsa.

Question 38.
With which religion Tri-Ratnas are associated?
Answer:
Tri-Ratnas are associated with Jainism.

Question 39.
Mention Jainism’s Tri-Ratnas.
Or
What are the Tri-Ratnas of Jainism?
Answer:

• Right faith,
• Right knowledge,
• Right conduct.

Question 40.
Who introduced the principle of Brahmacharya in Jainism?
Answer:
Lord Mahavira.

Question 41.
How many truths does Jainism admit?
Or
What are the basic elements of Jain philosophy?
Answer:
9.

Question 42.
Mention two truths of Jainism.
Answer:
Papa (Sin) and Punya (Virtue).

Question 43.
How is Atman designated in Jainism?
Answer:
Jiva.

Question 44.
What are the two forms of Ajiva in Jainism?
Answer:

• Rupi,
• Arupi.

Question 45.
What was the process which prevented Karma to come near the self?
Answer:
Samvara.

Question 46.
What is meant by Asarva?
Answer:
It is a process by which the soul accumulates the Karmas within.

Question 47.
What according to Jainism Pudgala mean?
Answer:
Elements or atoms.

Question 48.
According to jainism there are how many Karmas?
Answer:
8.

Question 49.
Mention any one type of Karmas mentioned by Jainism.
Answer:
Jnanavamiya Karma.

Question 50.
What according to Jain philosophy Jivd?
Answer:
Soul.

Question 51.
What according to Jain philosophy Ajiva mean?
Answer:
Inanimate.

Question 52.
How many types of violence are mentioned in Jain philosophy?
Answer:
108.

Question 53.
How many ways are for acquiring punya according to Jainism?
Answer:
42.

Question 54.
How many consequences one faces due to Papa (Vice)?
Answer:
It results in 82 consequences.

Question 55.
With which religion Anekantvad (manyness) is associated?
Answer:
It is related with Jainism.

Question 56.
According to Jainism how many Anuvartas man should observe in life?
Answer:
Man should observe five Anuvartas.

Question 57.
What according to Jainism Nirvana mean?
Answer:
Nirvana means freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth.

Question 58.
Why is Jainism called atheism?
Answer:
It is because Jainism does not believe in the existence of God.

Question 59.
Who was the founder of Ajivika sect?
Answer:
Goshal.

Question 60.
What was the main principle of Ajivika?
Answer:
Ajivika believed in pre-determined destiny.

Question 61.
Mention two principal sects of Jains.
Answer:

• Digambaras,
• Shvetambaras.

Question 62.
What does Shvetambara mean?
Answer:
The sect that wore white clothes.

Question 63.
What does Digambara mean?
Answer:
One who remains naked.

Question 64.
Who was Lonka Sa?
Answer:
He was the leader of Lonka Sa sect of Jainism.

Question 65.
Who was the founder of Sthanakavasi sect?
Answer:
Viraji.

Question 66.
Who was the founder of Terapantha sect?
Answer:
Bhikhanji.

Question 67.
How many categories of members the Jain Sangha had?
Answer:
Four.

Question 68.
Who were not permitted to join Jain Sangha?
Answer:
Evil doers.

Question 69.
What were male and female Jain Sangha members called?
Answer:
Bhikshus and Bhikshunis.

Question 70.
What is the language of Jain Holy Texts?
Answer:
It is Prakrit or Ardhamaghdi.

Question 71.
Which is the holiest Jain scripture?
Answer:
Twelve Angas.

Question 72.
Mention any two Jain Angas.
Answer:

• Acharangasutra,
• Bhagvatisutra.

Question 73.
Which Jain Sutra prescribes rules for Jain monks?
Answer:
Acharangasutra.

Question 74.
How many Upangas Jain religion has?
Answer:
12 Upangas.

Question 75.
Who wrote Kalpasutra?
Answer:
Bhadrabahu.

Question 76.
What is the subject of Kalpasutra?
Answer:
It gives a detailed history of Lord Mahavira.

Question 77.
How many Chedasutras are in Jainism?
Answer:
Jainism has 6 Chedasutras.

Question 78.
How many Mulasutras Jainism has?
Answer:
4.

Question 79.
How many books on Digambara sect are available?
Answer:
Four.

Question 80.
Mention any one Digambara related books.
Answer:
Prathamanuyoga.

Fill in the Blanks :

1. Jainism was originally called …………….
Answer:
Nirgrantha

2. The total number of Jain Tirathankaras is ……………..
Answer:
24

3. The first Tirathankara of Jainism is …………….
Answer:
Rishabanatha

4. …………… was the 23rd Tirathankara of Jgjnism.
Answer:
Parshavanatha.

5. ………….. was the 24th and last Tirathankara of Jainism.
Answer:
Swami Mahavira.

6. Swami Mahavira was born in …………..
Answer:
599 B.C.

7. …………… was the mother of Swami Mahavira.
Answer:
Trishla.

8. Swami Mahavira’s mother had ………….. dreams before his birth.
Answer:
14.

9. The name of Swami Mahavira’s daughter was …………..
Answer:
Priyadarshana.

10. Mahavira was …………… years old at the time of enlightenment.
Answer:
42.

11. Lord Mahavira attained Nirvana in …………
Answer:
527 B.C.

12. Jainism believed in ……………. Ratans (Jewels).
Answer:
Three.

13 introduced the principle of Brahmacharya in Jainism.
Answer:
Lord Mahavira.

14. Jainism believed in …………… truths.
Answer:
nine.

15. According to Jainism, …………… is a process by which the soul accumulates the Karmas within.
Answer:
Asarava.

16. Jainism believed in …………….. types of Karmas.
Answer:
8.

17. Anekantvad is also called as …………..
Answer:
Sayadwad.

18. Jainism believed in observing ……………. Anuvartas.
Answer:
five.

19. According to Jain religion, the main aim of human life is the attainment of ………….
Answer:
Nirvana.

20. According to Jainism, Pudgala means …………….
Answer:
Atoms (elements).

21. The founder of Ajivika sect was …………..
Answer:
Goshal.

22. Ajivika sect believed in predetermined …………..
Answer:
destiny.

23. The sect that wore white clothes were called …………
Answer:
Shvetambara.

24. …………… was the leader of Lonka sect.
Answer:
Lonk Sa.

25. ………….. was the founder of Terapantha sect.
Answer:
Bhikhanji.

26. The chief of the Jain Sangha was called …………..
Answer:
Acharya.

27. Jain Religions has …………… Angas.
Answer:
12.

True Or False:

1. Jainism believes in 20 Tirathankars.
Answer:
False

2. The first Tirathankar of Jain religion was Vimala.
Answer:
False

3. Lord Parshavanatha was the 23rd Tirathankar of the Jainism.
Answer:
True

4. Lord Parshavanatha got enlightenment after 23 days of vigrous meditation.
Answer:
False

5. Swami Parshavanatha’s teachings are called Chaturyama.
Answer:
True

6. Lord Mahavira was the 24th Tirathankar of Jainism.
Answer:
True

7. Lord Mahavira was bom in 567 B.C.
Answer:
False

8. The childhood name of Swami Mahavira was Vardhmana.
Answer:
True

9. The name of the mother of Swami Mahavira was Mahamaya.
Answer:
False

10. Lord Mahavira was 42 years old at the time of enlightenment.
Answer:
True

11. Lord Mahavira got Nirvana at Pava.
Answer:
True

12. Jainism have belief in Tri-Ratnas.
Answer:
True

13. Jainism does not have faith in Ahimsa.
Answer:
False

14. Jain philosophy teaches that there are Nine Tatvas.
Answer:
True

15. In Jainism, three karmas are significant.
Answer:
False

16. According to Jain religion, a man should follow five Annuvartas in his life.
Answer:
True

17. According to Jain Religion, the main aim of human life is the attainment of Nirvana.
Answer:
True

18. Right knowledge is the foundation of right belief as per Jainism.
Answer:
True

19. The Jains give five types of knowledge.
Answer:
True

20. Jainism believes in eight types of violence.
Answer:
False

21. The word Jiva means Atman (soul) in Jain philosophy.
Answer:
True

22. There are 42 means of attaining Punya, according to Jaina philosphy.
Answer:
True

23. Jainism professes that there are 57 ways to stop the Karma.
Answer:
True

24. According to Jainism, man should follow five Annuvartas.
Answer:
True

25. The Ajivika sect believed in the principle of Niyati (luck).
Answer:
True

26. The founder of Taranapantha was Bhikanji.
Answer:
False

27. The founder of Sthanakavasi was Viraji.
Answer:
True

28. Of all the religious texts of the Jains, 12 Angas are considered to be the most important.
Answer:
True

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Jainism believed in how many Tirathankars?
(a) 20
(b) 23
(c) 24
(d) 25
Answer:
(c) 24

2. Who was the First Tirathankar?
(a) Parshavanatha
(b) Mahavira
(c) Vimala
(d) Rishabhanatha
Answer:
(d) Rishabhanatha

3. Who was 23rd Tirathankar of Jainism?
(a) Vimala
(b) Ananta
(c) Rishabhanatha
(d) Paeshavanatha
Answer:
(d) Paeshavanatha

4. Who was 24th Tirathankar?
(a) Abhinandana
(b) Mahavira
(c) Pushpadanta
(d) Ajita
Answer:
(b) Mahavira

5. When was Lord Mahavira born?
(a) 566 B.C.
(b) 567 B.C.
(c) 569 B.C.
(d) 599 B.C.
Answer:
(d) 599 B.C.

6. Where was Lord Mahavira born?
(a) Lumbini
(b) Kundagrama
(c) Kushinagra
(d) Kapila Vastu
Answer:
(b) Kundagrama

7. What was the name of the father of Lord Mahavira?
(a) Siddhartha
(b) Rahul
(c) Vardhamana
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Siddhartha

8. What was the name of Swami Mahavira’s mother?
(a) Trishala
(b) Yashodhara
(c) Mahamaya
(d) Prajapati Gautmi
Answer:
(a) Trishala

9. How many dreams were seen by Lord Mahavira’s mother before his birth?
(a) 8
(b) 10
(c) 12
(d) 14
Answer:
(d) 14

10. What was the childhood name of Lord Mahavira?
(a) Vardhmana
(b) Siddhartha
(c) Rahul
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Vardhmana

11. What was the age of Swami Mahavira at the time of enlightenment?
(a) 20 years
(b) 30 years
(c) 35 years
(d) 42 years
Answer:
(d) 42 years

12. Where was Swami Mahavira enlightened?
(a) Jrimbhikagrama
(b) Bodh Gaya
(c) Vaishali
(d) Kundagrama
Answer:
(a) Jrimbhikagrama

13. Which one of the following was not the preaching centres of Lord Mahavira?
(a) Rajgriha
(b) Vaishali
(c) Angla
(d) Purushpur
Answer:
(d) Purushpur

14. Where did Mahavira attain Nirvana?
(a) Videha
(b) Anga
(c) Rajgriha
(d) Pava
Answer:
(d) Pava

15. What was the age of Mahavira at the time of Nirvana?
(a) 60 years
(b) 62 years
(c) 72 years
(d) 80 years
Answer:
(c) 72 years

16. Which of the following religion believed in Tri-Ratana?
(a) Buddhism
(b) Jainism
(c) Islam
(d) Parsi.
Answer:
(b) Jainism

17. How many truths Jainism believed?
(a) 3
(b) 5
(c) 7
(d) 9
Answer:
(d) 9

18. According to Jainism, what is the main cause of the bondage of Jiva?
(a) Papa
(b) Asrava
(c) Moksha
(d) Ajiva
Answer:
(a) Papa

19. Which one of the following is not a preaching of Lord Mahavira?
(a) Belief in ahimsa
(b) Belief in karma philosophy
(c) Belief in equality
(d) Belief in God
Answer:
(d) Belief in God

20. Jainism believed in how many Anuvartas?
(a) 3
(b) 5
(c) 7
(d) 9
Answer:
(b) 5

21. How many types of violence are mentioned in Jain philosophy?
(a) 2
(b) 3
(c) 4
(d) 5
Answer:
(a) 2

22. Which element renders movement to the creatures and Pudgalas?
(a) Pudgala
(b) Dharma
(c) Adharma
(d) Papa
Answer:
(b) Dharma

23. Who was the founder of Ajivika sect?
(a) Goshala
(b) Swami Mahavira
(c) Veeraji
(d) BhikhanJi
Answer:
(a) Goshala

24. Which of the following sect is not associated with Jainism?
(a) Digambara
(b) Shvetambara
(c) Lonka
(d) Mahayana
Answer:
(d) Mahayana

25. Which of the following religious text is not associated with Jainism?
(a) Deepvansha
(b) Kalpasutra
(c) Bhagvati Sutra
(d) Aacharanga Sutra
Answer:
(a) Deepvansha

Punjab State Board PSEB 7th Class Computer Science Book Solutions Chapter 2 Windows Explorer Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 7 Computer Science Chapter 2 Windows Explorer

Computer Guide for Class 7 PSEB Windows Explorer Textbook Questions and Answers

Choose the Suitable Option and fill in the Blanks:

Question 1.
Windows Explorer has two panes. These are …………… and …………….
(a) First, Second
(b) Left, Right
(c) Top, Bottom
(d) File, Folder.
Answer:
(b) Left, Right

Question 2.
……………. type and date of modified of a file.
(a) Details
(b) Tiles
(c) List
(d) Content.
Answer:
(a) Details

Question 3.
………………… command is used to move an item from its place.
(a) Copy
(b) Paste
(c) Cut
(d) Delete.
Answer:
(c) Cut

Question 4.
A …………. combination of pictures, colors and sounds on our computer.
(a) Background
(b) Desktop
(c) Screen Saver
(d) Theme.
Answer:
(d) Theme.

Question 5.
A …………. software program that becomes activated after the computer is not in use for a specified duration of time.
(a) Background
(b) Desktop
(c) Screen Saver
(d) Theme.
Answer:
(c) Screen Saver.

2. Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Which Window application is used for management of flies?
Answer:
Windows Explorer is used to manage files properly.

Question 2.
What do we call a folder inside another folder?
Answer:
Sub-folder.

Question 3.
What is the method of opening Windows Explorer?
Answer:
There are ways to open Windows Explorer.

• Press Windows key + E.
• Type Explorer in the Run box.

Question 4.
Write the name of any default library of Window.
Answer:
By default Windows has four libraries-Documents, Music, Pictures, and Videos.

Question 5.
Which option is used to make a duplicate of an item?
Answer:
The copy/paste option is used to make a duplicate of an item.

3. Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
How many panes are available in Window Explorer? Write their names.
Answer:
Windows Explorer has two panes.

• Left pane
• Right pane.

Question 2.
Write the name of different parts of Window Explorer.
Answer:
Windows Explorer has the following components:

1. Title bar
2. Back and forward buttons
3. Address bar
4. Search box
5. Menu bar
6. Tool bar
7. Status bar.

Question 3.
Define File and Folder.
Answer:
A file is a common storage unit in a computer in which data, programs, software, etc. are stored. Computers have different files that have different functions. The data stored in the file can be “updated, deleted, edited” at any time.
The folder is where the files are stored. We can save more than one file and folder in one folder. For example I have a box containing 10 apples. In this example the box is a folder and the apples are the files saved in it. Another folder inside any folder is called a sub-folder.

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is Windows Explorer? Give different ways to open Windows Explorer.
Answer:
Windows Explorer is also called File Explorer. It is used to view files and folders on our computer. We can open the data, folder and library of the disk in the computer and also search for an item. We can use it to open, delete, rename, copy, move and create new folders.
We can open window explorer in many ways. Some of these are as follow:

• Just press Win key +E and File Explorer starts immediately.
  Or
• Click Windows-Keys > All Programs > Accessories > Windows Explorer.
  Or
• Press Windows key – the search box will open. Now type file explorer in it.
  Or
• Press Windows key +R key together. The Run box will open. Now type explorer in it.
  Or
• By default, Windows 10 includes a File Explorer shortcut on the taskbar. Its icon looks like a folder. Click or tap on it and File Explorer is opened.

Question 2.
Explain different views of Windows Explorer.
Answer:
View means how files and folders appear in a computer system. Explorer has five types of views. These are:
1. Small, Medium, Large and Extra Large Icons View:
Items in this view are in more than one row and each item appears in the shape of an icon. Each item has a name.

2. Tiles Icon View:
Items in this view are in more than one row and each item appears in the shape of an icon. Each item has a name. It contains other information, such as the type of file and its size.

3. List Icon View:
Items in this view are in more than one column. Each item has a name and the icon, is to the left of the name.

4. Content Icon View:
Items in this view appear in the column. Each item is in the shape of an icon. It has a name and type of the file is written below it. Some other properties such as modification date and size below it are also visible. By default this view is used for search.

5. Detail Icon View:
Each item appears as a table row. The first column contains the name of the item in the form of a small icon and the rest of the column lists its properties such as its size and the date and type of modification.

Question 3.
What are the options to customize the Desktop in Windows Environment?
Answer:
Customizing is the process of changing the settings of a desktop.
1. Themes:
Themes are a combination of pictures, colors, and sounds. It has background, screen saver, border color and sound scheme.
Windows has the following themes:

• My Themes
• Arrow Themes
• Basic and High Contrast The-mes Following are the steps to apply the theme:

Open Settings.

• Click on Personalization.
• Click on Themes.
• Click the Get more themes in the Microsoft Store option.
• Select the theme you want.
• Click the Get button.
• Click the Apply button.
• Click the newly added theme to apply it from the “Themes” page.

2. Desktop Background:
It is a wallpaper image that appears behind the icons on your computer’s desktop. It can be in JPEG or Gif format. The following are steps to change the desktop background:

• Right-click the desktop and choose Personalize from the shortcut menu. The Personalization window appears.
• Click the Desktop Background link. The Desktop Background dialog box appears.
• Select a category of desktop background options from the Picture Location list box and then click the image from the background preview list that you want to use.
• The background is previewed on your desktop. Click Save Changes.

3. Screen Saver:
Screen saver is the graphics that appear on the screen after not working on the computer for some time. It is used for security and protection of the screen. We can set our own screen saver.
Steps to set the screen saver: Here are the steps to set up a screen saver:

• Right-click the desktop and choose Personalize from the shortcut menu. The Personalization window appears.
• Click the Lock Screen option. The lock screen dialog box appears.
• In the Screen Saver Settings window, choose a screen saver from the drop-down list.
• Click on the Preview button to preview the screen saver.
• The screensaver has to be set to run automatically from the desktop. So type the time setting in the Wait option that appears in the picture.
• Click on Apply button and press Ok button.

Question 4.
How can we Copy items using the ‘send to’ option?
Answer:
The Send to Option is an easy way to copy one or more items or programs to a new location. Following are the steps to use Send to option:

• Select the item to be copied.
• Press the right mouse button; select the option “Send To” from the menu.
• Now select the specified location. By default, the Send To sub menu contains the following locations:
  • Compressed (zipped) folder
  • Desktop (Create Short-cut)
  • Documents Library
  • Fax and mail recipients
  • Removable devices, such as: USB. Memory Sticks
• Select the option as needed.

Question 5.
Write about Screen Saver.
Answer:
Screen saver is the graphics that appear on the screen after not working on the computer for some time. It is used for security and protection of the screen. We can set our own screen saver.
Steps to set the Screen Saver:
Here are the steps to set up a screen saver:

• Right-click the desktop and choose Personalize from the shortcut menu; The Personalization window appears.
• Click the Lock Screen option. The lock screen dialog box appears.
• In the Screen Saver Settings window, choose a screen saver from the drop-down list.
• Click on the Preview button to-preview the screen saver.
• The screensaver has to be set to run automatically from the desktop. So type the time setting in the Wait option that appears in the picture.
• Click on Apply button and press Ok button

PSEB 7th Class Computer Guide Windows Explorer Important Questions and Answers

1. Fill in the Blanks

Question 1.
Windows Explorer has ………. views.
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
(d) Five.
Answer:
(d) Five.

Question 2.
The ………………. command is used to run the program.
(a) Calculator
(b) Window
(c) View
(d) Bun.
Answer:
(d) Bun.

Question 3.
The …………. view displays the files as a list.
(a) Tile
(b) Content
(c) Large
(d) I&t.
Answer:
(d) I&t.

Question 4.
The ………… option is used to copy files and folders.
(a) Cut
(b) Copy
(c) Paste
(d) Run.
Answer:
(b) Copy

Question 5.
Explorer can be run by typing …………….. in the run box.
(a) Exp
(b) Explorer
(c) Command
(d) GMD.
Answer:
(b) Explorer

Question 6.
The …………… option is used to find files and folders.
(a) Select
(b) File
(c) Search
(d) Delete.
Answer:
(c) Search

Question 7.
The calculator is opened by typing …………….. in the run box.
(a) Calculator
(b) Cal
(c) Calc
(d) None of these.
Answer:
(c) Calc

Question 8.
The ………… command is used to remove an item from its place.
(a) Copy
(b) Paste
(c) Cut
(d) Delete.
Answer:
(c) Cut

2. True/False

Question 1.
Explorer is used to manage folders.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
A folder can contain many files and folders.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
How to open Explorer
Start> All Programs> Accessories> Windows Explorer
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Explorer is a system software.
Answer:
False

Question 5.
“Invert Selection” option is used to reverse the selection.
Answer:
True

Question 6.
To select all files in a folder press Ctrl+A keys.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
A single file can contain many files and folders.
Answer:
False

Question 8.
Windows Explorer is an operating system.
Answer:
False

Question 9.
The Copy option is used to duplicate an item.
Answer:
True

3. Match the Columns

Column A	Column B
1. Views of Explorer	(a) List
2. Calculator	(b) Deleted files
3. Desktop	(c) Picture, Music
4. My Documents	(d) Background
5. Recycle Bin	(e) Calculations.

Answer:

Column A	Column B.
1. Views of Explorer	(a) List
2. Calculator	(e) Calculations.
3. Desktop	(d) Background
4. My Documents	(c) Picture, Music
5. Recycle Bin	(b) Deleted files

4. Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is Windows Explorer?
Answer:
Windows Explorer is a very important application of operating system. This manages files and folders. It helps to keep files and folders in the correct order i.e cut, copy, paste and delete them.

Question 2.
How to delete files and folders?
Answer:
Delete command is used to delete a file or folder. Following are the steps to delete file/folder:

• Select the file or folder you want to delete.
• Press the Delete key from the keyboard. A message will appear asking for deletion.
• Click on “Yes”. Item will be deleted.

If you want to delete file permanently then you will need to empty the Recycle Bin.

Question 3.
Write down steps to create a new folder.
Answer:
Here are some ways to Create a File in Explorer:

• Select the drive or folder in the left pane where you want to create the place of the cursor where you want to add your folder.
• In File Explorer, click on the Home menu item.
• From the Home ribbon, click on the New folder button.
• Enter the name of your new folder and press enter key.

Question 4.
How is a file or folder restored?
Answer:
Sometimes when we delete a file or folder we feel the need for it later. The Recycle Bin feature can be used to store files and folders again. The steps to restore a file or folder are as follows:

• Double click on the Recycle Bin. (The Recycle Bin window will open.)
• Click on the file or folder to be restored.
• Click on File. Restore menu.

Question 5.
What do you know about calculators?
Answer:
Calculator:
Calculator is like a program with the help of which calculations are done. With its help +, c, z etc. calculations are done. For example, to multiply 2 by 5, first click on 2. Then click on the multiplication sign. Then click on 5. Then click the = sign. 10 will appear as a result.

5. Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is a series of locations? Explain in detail.
Answer:
Series of Locations:
The folders and drives in the computer, the computer connected to the network and its shared folders, drives and printers are arranged in a tree shape. This sequence is called a series of locations. It contains the following items:

1. Favorites:
The top most folder in this series is the Desktop folder. It contains desktop, downloads and recent place items.

2. Library Folder:
By default this folder contains four libraries, such as; Documents, music, photos and videos. These folders contain related items; Such as pictures in pictures folder, related videos in video folder, etc.

3. Personal Folder:
Your personal folder is named after the user name to which you have logged in to the computer and by default it contains the following folders; such as Contacts, Downloads, Favorites, Links, My Documents, My Music, My Pictures, My Videos, Saved Games and Search.

4. MY Computer:
Disks in a computer; such as C: drive, D: Drive, E: Drive etc. and other connected devices such as Printer, USB, memory- stick and camera are attached to the computer, they are visible here.

5. Network: If you are connected to a local network, you see other computers and devices in it.

6. Control Panel:
Control Panel is used to configure hardware and software of computer system and to change settings of computer system.

7. Recycle Bin: It contains deleted files/folders or programs.

Question 2.
How are items selected? Write different ways to do this.
Answer:
Selecting the Items:
Usually before doing any work on a file or folder such as opening a file, closing a file, deleting file, copy a file etc. we have to select it. There are different ways to select a single file/folder or multiple files/folders.

1. Selecting a Single Item:
If more than one item is available and you want to select one of the items in it, it can be selected by clicking with the mouse on that file.

2. Selecting More Than One File:
There are a few ways to select more than one file at a time:

(a) If your viewing your files as icons, you can click and drag the mouse to draw a box around the files you want to select. When you’re done, release the mouse; the files will be selected. You can now move, copy, or delete all of these files at the same time.

(b) Selecting All Items:
If you want to select all files in a folder at the same time, open the folder in File Explorer and press Ctrl+A or click “Select all” option from the “Select” group on the Home tab. All of the files in the folder will be selected.

(c) Select items using the Shift key:
To select a group of files from a folder, click the first file, press and hold the Shift key on your keyboard, then click the last file. All of the files between the first and last ones will be selected.

(d) Selecting an item using (Ctrl key):
To select specific files from a folder, press and hold the Control key on your keyboard, then click the files you want to select.

3. Reverse selection: To reverse the selection, select the “Invert Selection” option in the Edit menu.

Question 3.
Write different ways to create a folder.
Answer:
Creating a Folder
If you want to create a new folder, it is created in the current location. Here are some ways to create a folder:
1. Open the File explorer, click on the “New Folder” button option.
2. The new folder will appear.
Type the desired name for the folder and press Enter.
Or
Press the Ctrl + Shift + N keys together from the keyboard. The new folder will appear. Type the name of the folder and press Enter key.
Or
Right-click on a blank space, click “New” => “Folder” in the context menu. The new folder will appear. Type the name of the folder and press Enter key.
Or

• Place the cursor where you want to add your folder.
• In File Explorer, click on the Home menu item.
• From the Home button, click on the New folder button.
• Enter the name of your new folder and press

Question 4.
Write the steps to rename the item.
Answer:
Re-naming the Item:
You can change the name of any file or folder. Here are the steps to rename an item:
1. Click the file or folder, wait about one second, and click again. An editable text field will Explore appear. open
2. Type the desired name on your keyboard and press Enter. The name will be changed.

Or
1. You can also right-click the Cut folder and select “Rename” copy option from the menu that create shortcut appears. An editable text field will appear.
2. Type the desired name from Properties keyboard and press Enter. The name will be changed.

Question 5.
Write the steps to delete an item.
Answer:
Delete a File or Folder:
If you no longer need to use a file, you can delete it. When you delete a file, it is moved to the Recycle Bin, If you change your mind, you can move the file from the Recycle Bin back to its original location. If you’re sure you want to permanently delete the file, you will need to empty the Recycle Bin. Following are the steps to delete file/folder:

• Select the file or folder you want to delete.
• Press the Delete key from the keyboard. A message will appear asking for deletion.
  
• Click on “Yes”. Item will be deleted.

Question 6.
Write the steps for copying or pasting items.
Answer:
Copying or Pasting Items:
To copy a file/folder the steps are as follow:
1. Select the item to be copied.

2. Select the “Copy” option from the “Clipboard” group on the “Home” tab.
Or
Press Ctrl + c keys from the keyboard.
Right-click on the file/folder you want to copy. A menu will open. From this menu select the “copy” option. Now your file/folder will be copied. Steps to paste the file/Folder are as follow:
1. Place the cursor where you want to paste the file/folder.
2. Select the “Paste” option from the “Clipboard” group on the “Home” tab.
3. Your copied item will now be pasted.
Or
Press the Ctrl + V key from the keyboard.
Or
Locate and right-click the desired location, then select “Paste” option from the menu appeared.