Class 11

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 8 Justice Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Justice

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define the term ‘Justice’. Discuss the fundamental postulates of Justice.
Answer:
‘Justice’ is of utmost importance in Political Science. Its existence is as ancient as human society. Several scholars have defined justice differently in every age.
Meaning and definitions of Justice. The word ‘Justice’ has been derived from Latin word ‘ Jus’ which means, Bond or Tie. It means, Justice is that system where in all individuals are related to each other. In modern Political Science, Justice stands for that state of social life in which personal rights are combined with social welfare. Main definitions of justice are mentioned below :
1. To quote J.S. Mill, “Justice is the name for certain classes of moral values, which concern the essentials of human well-being more clearly and are, therefore, of more absolute obligations, than any other rules for the guidance of life.

2. According to Barker, “Justice is an order of persons and an order of the principles regulating the distribution of rights to persons, which is measured and determined by a final and ultimate value.”

3. According to Salmond, “Justice means to give every individual his due share.”

4. Merriam opines, “Justice consists in a system of understandings and procedures through which is accorded what is agreed upon as fair.”

Merriam’s definition highlights the following four aspects:

• Justice is concerned with moral values and conceptions of society.
• Justice is related to procedures also. Law and Courts are set to get justice.
• The aim of Justice is to arrange rights and conveniences for people.
• Different classes of society at a time can have different conceptions of rights and conveniences.

On the basis of above-mentioned definitions, we can conclude that Justice is that state in which a man can lead a well-set and disciplined life.

Fundamental Postulates Of Justice:
Arnold Brecht has described the following Fundamental Postulates of Justice-

1. Truth: Truth is the basic postulate of justice. Truth means exact presentation of an incident. Truthfulness of the facts stated in courts is of primary importance.

2. Generality of the Systems of Value: It means that the same conception of justice should be applied to every matter.

3. Equality before Law: All the citizens should be equal before law. The citizens should not be discriminated in the name of caste, colour, creed and sex.

4. Freedom: Justice and freedom are co-related. The Liberals are of the view that man can get justice only in a free atmosphere. Freedom should be restricted for the welfare of society and nation.

5. Respect for the Essentials of Nature: It is against the spirit of justice to compel a man to do some work which is beyond his capacity naturally. For example, to expect an old and ill man to put in physical labour is purely injustice.

These above-mentioned five fundamental postulates are necessary to be followed to get justice at the local, national and international level.

Question 2.
What are the socio-economic dimensions of Justice ? Explain fully.
Or
What do you understand by the phrase, ‘Justice, Social and Economic’? Indicate five of its major implications.
Answer:
Two forms of Justice- Moral and Legal were prevalent traditionally. But these days Justice has various aspects – legal, political, social and economic. The importance of social and economic justice is increasing day-by-day and both are inter-connected. Social and economic justice is the very basis of present welfare states.

Social Justice:
Social justice is extremely popular in modem age. Innumerable people, all over the world, have adopted Socialism and Marxism only because of social justice. Once Pandit Nehru expressed his view that Marxism is extremely popular not because of its scientific principle but for its readiness for social justice.

According to Gajendra Gadker, “ Social Justice means the abolition of all social inequalities and provision of equal opportunities to all the individuals living in society.” Allen says, “ Social justice means removal of inequalities and discrimination amongst the members of the society.” Thus social justice means that all the people living in society are equal. The people should not be treated discriminately on the basis of caste, religion, colour and sex.

All the people should have equal opportunities to develop their personalities, all should have equal facilities to use public places, religious places and the places of entertainment. The State shouldn’t adopt the policy of untouchability and the interests of the minorities should be. safeguarded.

According to Barker, it is the main objective of society to give opportunity to each individual to develop his inborn talent. So establishment of adequate conditions for all is Social Justice.
Laski is of the view that to provide equal social rights is social justice. Establishment of social justice is the responsibility of the State. Social justice has been strongly emphasised in Indian Constitution and the Government of India has passed general laws to establish Social Justice.

Economic Justice:
Social justice and Economic Justice are intimately related to each other. Aristotle considered economic inequality to be improper. Kautilya suggested that the State would provide means to live to the orphans, helpless and the disabled. The State would organise economic system in such a way as to provide justice to its citizens.

Karl Marx, the expounder of Communism, called Economic Justice to be the basis of social, political and cultural justice. Now-a-days social justice without economic justice is thought to be sheer imagination. M.C. Chagla has rightly commented, freedom is meaningless if it obstructs the realization of economic justice. Social justice has no value for a hungry and unemployed person.

According to Setalvad, “Economic justice is the provision of equal opportunities to the citizens to acquire wealth and use it for their living, it is applied to those persons who are disabled or old or unemployed and therefore not in a position to acquire wealth and should be helped by society to live.”

Important elements of economic justice are mentioned below:

• The bare necessities of all the citizens should be provided with.
• Every individual should be given the sources of livelihood. Adequate wages for their work should be given.
• Under special circumstances citizens have the right to get government aid. The State should protect the old, unemployed and economically infirm.
• Men and women should get equal wages for equal work.
• The scholars differ in their views about the control over property and sources of production.

It is the State’s responsibility to establish economic justice. The State aims at eliminating economic inequality. Economic justice is the very foundation of modem state. A just society can’t he established without economic justice. The Government of India is trying its best to maintain economic justice.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the term Justice.
Answer:
The word ‘Justice’ has been derived from Latin word ‘Jus’ which means, Bond or Tie. It means, Justice is that system where in all individuals are related to each other. Justice is connected with the fact as to what type of moral, social, economic, political and legal relations an individual has with the other individual. In Modern Political Science, Justice stands for that state of social life in which personal rights are combined with social welfare.

1. According to Salmond, “Justice means to give every individual his due share.”
2. Merriam opines, “Justice consists in a system of understanding and procedures through which is accorded what is agreed upon as fair.”

Question 2.
Distinguish between legal and moral justice.
Answer:
The difference between legal justice and moral justice is as follows:
1. Legal justice deals with Principles and procedures as laid down by the system of law prevailing in a state whereas moral justice deals with what is right and what is Wrong. What are our rights and what are our duties as human beings.

2. The coercion power of state works behind legal justice whereas the strength of morality is behind moral justice.

3. The scope of legal justice is limited than moral justice.

4. Legal codes are defined and fixed but this is not so with moral justice.

Question 3.
Discuss the meaning and importance of Social Justice.
Answer:
Meaning of Social Justice:
Social Justice means that all the people living in a society are equal. Social Justice implies that there should not be any discrimination among citizens from social point of view. No discrimination should be made on the basis of religion, caste, colour, sex, etc. All the people should have equal opportunities to develop their personalities.

Importance of Social Justice:
The importance of social justice is increasing day-by-day in a modern democratic state. Social justice is the very basis of present Welfare state. Once Pandit Nehru expressed his view that Marxism is extremely popular not because of its scientific principles but for its readiness for social justice. Social justice is very essential for the maintenance of social harmony and peace in the society. To make democracy a success, social justice is essential.

Question 4.
What do you mean by Social Justice? Do you agree that majority of the people are denied social justice in India?
Answer:
Meaning of Social Justice:
Social Justice means that all the people living in a society are equal. Social Justice implies that there should not be any discrimination among citizens from social point of view. No discrimination should be made on the basis of religion, caste, colour, sex, etc. All the people should have equal opportunities to develop their personalities.

Majority of the People are denied Social Justice in India:
Though the makers of the Indian constitution have made a provision for social justice through Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy, yet majority of the people are being denied social justice in India. The citizens enjoy right to equality which is the very basis of the social justice, but in practice economic equality does not exist which is the pre-condition for social and political equality.

Though Article-17 had abolished untouchability yet in practice untouchability is followed in many parts of the country. Poor people are not getting social justice and more than thirty per cent of the people are living below poverty line. Children, women and weaker sections of the society are still exploited and they do not enjoy social justice.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the term Justice.
Answer:
The word ‘Justice’ has been derived from Latin word ‘Jus’ which means, Bond or Tie. It means, Justice is that system where in all individuals are related to each other. In Modem Political Science, Justice stands for that state of social life in which personal rights are combined with social welfare.

Question 2.
Define Justice.
Answer:

1. According to Salmond, “Justice means to give every individual his due share.”
2. Merriam opines, “Justice consists in a system of understanding and procedures through which is accorded what is agreed upon as fair.”

Question 3.
Discuss the meaning of Social Justice.
Answer:
Social Justice means that all the people living in a society are equal. Social Justice implies that there should not be any discrimination among citizens from social point of view. No discrimination should be made on the basis of religion, caste, colour, sex, etc. All the people should have equal opportunities to develop their personalities.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which language has the word ‘Justice’ been derived?
Answer:
The English word ‘Justice’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘Jus’.

Question 2.
Write down the meaning of Justice.
Answer:
The Enghsh word Justice means a Bond or tie.

Question 3.
Give a definition of Justice.
Answer:
According to D.D. Raphael,“Justice protects the rights of the individual as well as the order of society.”

Question 4.
Write down the definition of Justice given by Salmond.
Answer:
According to Salmond,“Justice means to provide everybody his share.”

Question 5.
Mention two basic postulates of Justice.
Answer:

1. Truth
2. Liberty.

Question 6.
Mention any two dimensions or forms of Justice.
Answer:

1. Legal Dimension of Justice.
2. Social Dimension of Justice.

Question 7.
What is the meaning of Political Justice?
Answer:
Political Justice means that every individual, without any discrimination, should have the right to participate in the governance of the state.

Question 8.
Write down any two means to get political justice.
Answer:

1. Democratic System
2. Political Rights.

Question 9.
What is meant by Social Justice?
Answer:
Social Justice means that all individuals living in a society are equal and there should be no discrimination in their mutual relations.

Question 10.
What is the meaning of Economic Justice?
Answer:
There should be a proper division of the material means of the country. They should be used for the benefit of more and more people. They should serve the interest of maximum people.

Question 11.
What is Legal Justice?
Answer:
Legal Justice is concerned with the principle and process established by law in a state.

Fill in the blanks

1. Justice is that state in which a ……………… can lead a well-set and disciplined life.
Answer:
Man

2. The word justice has been derived from ……………… word.
Answer:
Latin

3. According to ……………… “justice means to give every individual his due share.”
Answer:
Salmond

4. Truth is the basic postulate of ……………… .
Answer:
Justice

5. All citizens should equal before ……………… .
Answer:
Law.

True or False statement

1. Justice and freedom are co-related.
Answer:
True

2. Social justice is extremely popular in modem age.
Answer:
True

3. Social justice -and Economic justice are not related to each other.
Answer:
False.

4. Men and women should get equal wages for equal work.
Answer:
True

5. It is not the state responsbility to establish economic justice.
Answer:
False.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Justice require:
(A) Committed judiciary
(B) Fearful judges
(C) Independent judiciary
(D) Dishonest judges.
Answer:
(C) Independent judiciary

Question 2.
People get proper justice in:
(A) Dictatorship
(B) Totalitarian state
(C) Monarchy
(D) Democracy.
Answer:
(D) Democracy.

Question 3.
Which one of the following Is not the fundamental postulate of justice:
(A) Truth
(B) Equality before law
(C) Freedom
(D) Property.
Answer:
(D) Property.

Question 4.
Justice la administered by:
(A) Executive
(B) Judiciary
(C) Legislature
(D) Political Parties
Answer:
(B) Judiciary

Question 5.
Justice Is essentially a:
(A) Legäl concept
(B) Moral concept
(C) Socia) concept
(D) All of the Above.
Answer:
(D) All of the Above.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 7 Equality-Meaning and Kinds

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Equality? Discuss its important kinds.
Answer:
Like liberty equality also has its importance for the individual. Both liberty and equality are very closely related to each other. There can be no liberty in the absence of equality. From the very beginning the individuals have tried to attain the right to equality. In ancient times the system of slavery was considered natural and it is quite clear from this thing that the individuals were not considered equal and they were not entitled to all the rights.

There were many struggles for the attainment of the right to equality. In the American Declaration of Independence (1776) it was declared that all the individuals are equal. In the French Declaration of Rights it was said that “Men are born and, always continue, free and equal in respect of their rights.” In the 19th and 20th centuries almost all the States recognized the right to equality. Russian constitution declared all individuals as equal and gave equal rights to all the citizens. In India also the right to equality is an important part of fundamental rights.

Meaning Of Equality:
Equality does not mean that all persons may be treated equal in all respects. Nor does equality imply that all persons should be given identical treatment irrespective of their capacity and temperament. Equality also does not mean ‘the identity of reward’ for efforts that are undesirable. The popular meaning of equality is that all men are equal, that all should get equal incomes and equal treatment. But this is a misconception of the principle of equality.

All men are never equal. Nature has endowed different men with different capacities. One individual is bom with the genius of the poet, another with that of the musician, a third with that of an engineer. The vast majority do not possess special aptitude of any kind. Men are not bom equal. In the words of Elton Trueblood, “Physically some men are three or four times as strong as others, able to perform many times as much work.

Intellectually the contrast is still greater, as may be realised when we compare an average person with a man like Sir Winston Churchill If intellectual in equality is more marked than physical inequality, moral inequality is still more so. The contrast between self-centred and cruel persons on the one hand, and the saints and heroes on the other, is really incalculable.”

All that is necessary to ensure the principle of equality is that special privileges of all kinds should be abolished. The State should grant equal civil and political rights to all people, making no discrimination on the ground of race, colour or income. All persons should be regarded as equal before the eyes of law.

Like liberty, equality has also a positive connotation. Not only all special privileges should be abolished, but all men should be given adequate opportunities to develop their abilities. This does not mean that all should get equal opportunities or that the State should make equal arrangements for everybody. All that is necessary to ensure equality is that the State should provide suitable opportunities for everybody.

If a citizen feels that he has the making of a good doctor in him, nothing stands in the way of his joining a good medical institution. He should be enabled to develop his abilities with the help of the State. The principle of equality is satisfied when the State provides its citizens with adequate opportunities for developing their abilities.

Thus there should be adequate and suitable facilities in the State for everyone to develop his own genius. The State should pass such laws that everyone in the State should be given full chances of development. The State should actively promote the welfare of all citizens.

Definitions of Equality:

1. According to Laski, “Whatever rights inhere in another by virtue of his being a citizen must inhere and to the same extent in me also.”
2. According to Barker, “The principle of equality accordingly means that whatever conditions are guaranteed to me in the form of rights shall also and in the same measure be guaranteed to others and that whatever rights are given to others shall also be given to me.”
3. According to Laski, “Equality means, first of all the absence of special privileges and in the second place it means that adequate opportunities are laid upon to all.”

Characteristics of Equality:
On the basis of the above-mentioned facts we come to know about the following features of equality:
1. Absence of Special Privileges:
An important feature of equality is that no individual or section of people is given special privileges in society. Nobody is given special privileges on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. All the members of the State and society should get equal opportunities on equal basis. The principle of equality cannot enjoy special privileges.

2. Provision for Adequate Opportunities of Development:
Equality means that every man in the State should get adequate opportunities for realizing his best self. Nature has not made all men equal. But it is not proper for the State to follow the law of Nature. On the other hand, the State through its laws should not increase this natural inequality. Rather it should pass such laws that no one in the State should be denied the opportunity of developing his own genius.

No one can be deprived of the opportunity to make progress on the basis of caste colour, creed and religion. The right to vote and the right to be elected should be given to all equally so that everybody gets the chance to participate in the administration, merit should be the main criterion to enter government service. Evferybody should be governed by the same law of the land and all should be equal in the eyes of law.

3. Provision for Minimum Standard of Living for every Individual:
Another important feature of equality is that all the basic needs of every individual should be satisfied in the society. The things without which life is meaningless must be accessible to all. “The urgent claims of all must be met before we can meet the particular claims of some.”

All the individuals in society cannot have the same amount of income. Every individual earns money according to his capacity and ability but everyone should have reasonable income so that he can make his both ends meet. Nobody should die of starvation. There should not exist gross inequalities of wealth among the members of society.

Kinds Of Equality:
Equality can be classified under the following heads:

• Natural Equality.
• Social Equality.
• Civil Equality.
• Economic Equality.
• Political Equality.
• National Equality.

1. Natural Equality:
Natural Equality has been explained differently by different writers. Some thinkers hold the opinion that Nature has created all the people equal and all persons should be given identical treatment irrespective of then- capacity and temperament. But the fact is that the Nature has not created all people equal.

People differ in colour, health, temperament and ability. Nature has not willed that all men should be equal. On the other hand, they are endowed with unequal abilities from their very birth. Natural equality may mean that all the individuals are basically equal and they should be treated equally. No individual can be sacrificed at the cost of the development of personality of another individual.

2. Social Equality:
Social equality implies that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of their riches, race, colour, religion, sex, class or caste. It implies that all members of the society are equal and no man is recognised as socially superior or inferior to other member of the community.

It also means that all persons should be treated as equal regardless of wealth, colour, caste and creed. If the society is divided into different castes or classes, that shows absence of social equality<197>that an untouchable should hold the same status in society as a Brahmin and a lord should not be considered superior to an ordinary citizen. But unfortunately that is not so in any State of the world except perhaps in Russia and that to a very limited extent. It will be nice if the sense of social inequality is uprooted and men are considered socially equal.

3. Civil Equality:
Civil equality means that everyone in the State enjoys the same status in the sphere of private law. It also sometimes implies the rule of law: It means that no person in the State should enjoy any special privileges. Fair justice is not possible in the absence of civil equality. This means that civil rights and liberties are enjoyed equally by all citizens irrespective of creed, colour and caste.

4. Economic Equality:
The aim of economic equality is to make all individuals equal in respect of wealth and income. This is the socialist idea.

Laski defines economic equality in a limited sense as consisting in equal opportunities for everyone to develop his natural faculties and power. Bryce considers that economic equality should not be an idea of democracy which is only a form of Government and should not disturb the foundations of social and economic order.

Nevertheless it should be the aim of democracy to reduce great inequalities in wealth. The concentration of property in the hands of a few is fatal to the purposes of the State and the socialist is right in his insistence that either the State must dominate property or property will dominate the State.

A very poor or starving man, having no economic opportunities has absolutely no use for the concept of equality. Therefore, economic equality has to be. given an important place in a State. Economic equality can exist, when all people have reasonable economic opportunities to develop themselves. Adequate scope for employment, reasonable wages, adequate leisure and other economic rights create economic equality.

5. Political Equality:
Political equality means that all the citizens should be treated equally in political sphere. According to Laski, by political equality is meant equal access of everyone to the avenue of authority. All the citizens should get equal political rights.

Every citizen should get the right to vote, right to contest elections, right to get Government job, right to criticise the Government and the right to address petitions and nobody should be discriminated against on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. Certain qualifications can be laid down for getting the right to vote but these conditions should not be laid down on the basis of caste, colour, creed and religion.

6. National Equality:
National equality means that all nations of the world are equal while dealing with other nations of the world.

Question 2.
Discuss the relationship between Equality and Liberty.
Or
‘Liberty is meaningless without equality.’ Do you agree with this view? Give reasons for your answer.
Or
‘The passion for equality has made vain the hope of liberty.’ Do you agree with this view?
Or
Are Liberty and Equality opposed to each other? Discuss.
Or
Why do you think equality is a pre-condition of enjoying liberty in a democratic set-up? Comment.
Answer:
Both Liberty and Equality are the two basic principles of democracy. Since time immemorial people have struggled hard to attain them. Human life cannot develop fully without the attainment of liberty and equality. Now-a-days almost in all the States the citizens enjoy the right to liberty and equality.

Relation between Liberty and Equality:
Political thinkers differ among themselves on the exact relationship between liberty and equality. Some thinkers are of the opinion that the concept of equality is only a Utopia and not a reality. They say that both liberty and equality are opposed to each other and they are complementary terms. Both liberty and equality cannot go together. There are thinkers also who say that liberty and equality are closely related to each other and one cannot exist without the other. Liberty in the absence of equality is meaningless.

Liberty and Equality are opposed to each other:
There is a viewpoint that both liberty and equality are opposed to each other and they cannot go side by side. The main advocates of this viewpoint are De Tocqueville and Lord Acton. According to Lord Acton, “The passion for equality has made vain the hope for liberty.”

Equality curtails individual liberty. If everybody is considered equal in the eyes of law and equality is established in economic sphere then everybody’s liberty will be curtailed. Nobody will have the liberty to earn money according to his own sweet will. If equality is established then the intelligent and hard-working people will riot be able to develop their personality to the full. These thinkers say that liberty and equality are opposed to each other on the following grounds.

1. Natural Inequality:
People are of the opinion that Nature has not created all the people equal. Nature has created all the people unequal and all of them do not possess the same qualities. From their very birth some people are intelligent, some are fools, some are weak some are strong, some are active and others are lazy. Therefore, all these people cannot be considered equal. If all these people are treated equally, it will be unjust and irrational.

2. One Destroys the Other:
On the basis of the principles of individualism some people consider that both these concepts are opposed to each other. The individualists say that the individual should be left alone in the economic sphere and there should be free trade and competition. This will greatly help in the development of individual personality and the individual will live in a free atmosphere.

If the State establishes economic equalty then intelligent and hard-working people will not be able to make the best use of ability and capacity. If the individuals are left to themselves every individual will earn money according to themselves every individual will earn money according to his ability and capacity. It will result in gross inequalties of wealth and hence the end of equality. If the Government controls production and fixes the wages of the labourers* it will also result in the curtailment of liberty and the difference between the capable and incapable will come to an end.

3. Checks the Progress:
It is great injustice to treat the capable and incapable, the intelligent and the fool equally. This neither enhances the liberty of the people, nor it helps in the promotion of public welfare. The labourers, doctors, engineers, scholars, scientists, traders and artists, all cannot be treated on equal footing. This way equality is such a concept which is far away from reality.

Liberty and Equality are not opposed to each other. Most of the thinkers do not accept the viewpoint that liberty and equality are opposed to each other. In the modern age nobody would like to accept this viewpoint. Now-a-days the viewpoint that liberty and equality are closely related to each other is accepted at all hands. It is said that liberty in the absence of equality is meaningless.

Prof. Laski, Prof, Towny, Pollard and Maclver are the thinkers who support this viewpoint. According to Prof. Towny, “A large measure of equality, so far from being inimical to liberty is essential to it.” According to Pollard, “There is only one solution of problem of liberty. It lies in equality.”

Those who think that liberty and equality are opposed to each other misunderstand the meaning of these words. If liberty means unrestricted and unrestrained liberty and equality means equal wages and equal work then these people are right. But liberty does not mean unrestricted and absolute liberty. Nobody can be allowed to do things arbitrarily while living in society. Certain restrictions will certainly be imposed on the actions of every individual.

These restrictions should, of course, be reasonable, just and logical. The imposition of reasonable and moral restrictions instead of unjust and immoral restrictions on the actions of man is called liberty. The aim of liberty is to create comfortable atmos¬phere which can be conducive to the development of individual personality.

The people also misunderstand the meaning of equality. Equality does not mean that all the people are bom equal and all are entitled to get equal wages and equal work. This is not the real meaning of equality. All the people are not bom equal and, therefore, they are not entitled to get equal income and equal work.

Equality means that nobody should enjoy special privileges in the State and everybody should be entitled to get equal opportunities in life. Equality means reasonable distribution of wealth and not equal distribution of wealth among the members of the society.

Thus equality instead of being opposed to liberty is an essential condition of it. It is only when equal opportunities are provided to all that a man can be really free to develop his personality and powers according to his choice. In a society where social privileges and differences in income are the rule, there can be hardly any liberty for those placed in a position of inferiority.

Thus properly understood the two terms are not opposed to each other but rather complementary to each other. Laski rightly says, “De Tocquevile and Lord Acton misunderstood the meaning of the term equality They wrongly thought that equality means the identity of treatment of all or identity of reward of all and, therefore, it is incompatible with liberty, which means freedom for everybody to develop his or her personality according to his or her nature.”

According to Prof. Ashrivatham, “The French Revolutionists were neither mad nor stupid when they made their way cry Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.”

Conclusion:
It is quite clear from the above discussion that both liberty and equality go together. They are not opposed to each other. One cannot be had without the other. Both are consistent and the progress of man is impossible till he can enjoy political liberty and economic equality. Both of them are compatible and complimentary. They must be enjoyed together to bring about maximum individual and social welfare. Both must exist side by side and in the absence of one we cannot have the other.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is implied by the term ‘Equality’?
Or
Give the meaning of Equality. .
Answer:
Equality does not mean that all persons may be treated euqal in all respects. Equality stands for the absence or removal of special privileges available to some and denied to others. The state should grant equal civil and political rights to all people, making no discrimination on the grounds of race, colour or income. All persons should be regarded as equal before the eyes of law. Equality also means that all men should be given adequate opportunities to develop their abilities. The state should provide suitable opportunities for everyone to develop his own genius.

Question 2.
Define Equality.
Answer:
Some of the important definitions of equality are as under:
According to Barker, “The principle of equality accordingly means that whatever conditions are guaranteed to me, in the form of rights, shall also, and in the same measure be guaranteed to me and that whatever rights are given to others shall also be given to me.” .

Accroding to Prof. Laski, “Undoubtedly, it implies fundamentally a certain levelling process. It means that no man shall be so placed in society that he can over-reach his neighbour to the extent which constitutes a denial of the latter’s citizenship”.

Question 3.
What do you understand by equal opportunities for all?
Answer:
Equality means that every man in the state should get equal and adequate opportunities for realizing his best self. The state should pass such laws that no one in the state should be denied the opportunity of developing his own geinius. No one should be deprived of the opportunity to make progress on the basis of caste, colour, creed and religion. Everybody should be governed by the same law of the land and all should be equal in the eyes of law.

Question 4.
What is the meaning of Economic Equality?
Answer:
Properly understood economic equality implies the elimination of excessive inequalities of material resources. Economic Equality does not mean that everybody should have equal income. But it does mean that every citizen should enjoy equal opportunities for earnining his livelihood. All the citizens should have the means to meet their needs. Economic equality also implies the absence of exploitation of man by man or of one class by another.’

Question 5.
What is Political Equality?
Answer:
Political Equality means that all the citizens should be treated equally in political sphere. According to Laski, by political equality is meant equal access of everyone to the avenue of authority. All the citizens should get equal political rights. Every citizen should get the right to vote, right to contest election, right to get government job, rigtht to criticise the Government and right to address petitions.

Nobody should be discriminated against on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood. Certain qualifications can be laid down for getting the right to vote but these conditions should not be laid down on the basis of caste, colour, creed and religion.

Question 6.
Explain four types of Equality.
Answer:
Four types of Equality are as follows:

1. Civil Equality: Civil Equality means that every one in the state enjoys the same status in the sphere of private law.
2. Social Equality: Social equality means that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of their riches, race class or caste.
3. Political Equality: Political equality means that all the citizens should be treated equally in political sphere.
4. Economic Equality: Economic equality means that there should be minimum inequality in the society and everyone should have equal opportunities to develop his natural faculties and power.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the meaning of Equality.
Answer:
Equality does not mean that all persons may be treated euqal in all respects. Equality stands for the absence or removal of special privileges available to some and denied to others. The state should grant equal civil and political rights to all people, making no discrimination on the grounds- of race, colour or income.

Question 2.
What is the meaning of Economie Equality?
Answer:
Properly understood economic equality implies the elimination of excessive inequalities of material resources. Every citizen should enjoy equal opportunities for eamining his livelihood. All the citizens should have the means to meet their needs.

Question 3.
What do you understand by Political equality?
Answer:
Political Equality means that all the citizens should be treated equally in political sphere. Every citizen should get the right to vote, right to contest election, right to get government job, rigtht to criticise the Government and right to address petitions. Nobody should be discriminated against on the basis of caste, colour, creed, religion and blood.

Question 4.
Mention any two kinds of Equality.
Answer:

1. Social Equality: Social equality implies that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of race, class, caste, sex, religion etc.
2. Economic Equality: Economic equality can exist when all people have reasonable economic opportunities to develop themselves.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by Equality ?
Answer:
Every individualmust get equal facilities so that he may grow and develop in accordance with his ability.

Question 2.
Write down any one definition of Equality.
Answer:
According to Laski,“Equality means first of all the absence of special privileges. In the second place, it means that adequate opportunities are laid open to all.”

Question 3.
Mention any one feature of Equality.
Answer:
The main feature of equality is that no individual or class enjoys special rights.

Question 4.
Describe different kinds of Equality.
Answer:

• Natural Equality
• Civil Equality
• Social Equality
• Political Equality
• Economic Equality.

Question 5.
What is the meaning of Natural Equality?
Answer:
Natural Equality means that nature has made all individuals equal. So all the individuals should be equally treated.

Question 6.
What is Civil Equality?
Answer:
Civil Equality means that all individuals should get equal rights. In other words, all men are equal before law.

Question 7.
What is meant by Social Equality?
Answer:
Social equality means that all individuals should be considered equal. They should not be discriminated on the basis of religion, caste, colour, sex and money.

Question 8.
What is meant by Political Equality?
Answer:
Political Equality means that all citizens, without any discrimination, should have the right to vote, to be elected, to petition and to hold any public office.

Question 9.
What is the meaning of Economic Equality?
Answer:
Economic inequality should be minimum in society. Every individual must get salary sufficient enough to fulfil his basic needs.

Question 10.
Liberty and Equality are opposed to each other. Discuss.
Answer:
Because of an open competition in the economic field, the rich will become more rich. It will increase economic inequality.

Question 11.
Liberty and Equality are not opposed to each other. Elucidate.
Answer:
The objective of both Liberty and Equality is the same. It is to provide facilities for the development of individual so that every individual may develop his personality.

Fill in the blanks

1. Justice is that state in which a ……………… can lead a well-set and disciplined life.
Answer:
Man

2. The word justice has been derived from ……………… word.
Answer:
Latin

3. According to ……………… “justice means to give every individual his due share.”
Answer:
Salmond

4. Truth is the basic postulate of ……………… .
Answer:
Justice

5. All citizens should equal before ……………… .
Answer:
Law.

True or False statement

1. Justice and freedom are co-related.
Answer:
True

2. Social justice is extremely popular in modem age.
Answer:
True

3. Social justice -and Economic justice are not related to each other.
Answer:
False.

4. Men and women should get equal wages for equal work.
Answer:
True

5. It is not the state responsbility to establish economic justice.
Answer:
False.

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Justice require:
(A) Committed judiciary
(B) Fearful judges
(C) Independent judiciary
(D) Dishonest judges.
Answer:
(C) Independent judiciary

Question 2.
People get proper justice in:
(A) Dictatorship
(B) Totalitarian state
(C) Monarchy
(D) Democracy.
Answer:
(D) Democracy.

Question 3.
Which one of the following Is not the fundamental postulate of justice:
(A) Truth
(B) Equality before law
(C) Freedom
(D) Property.
Answer:
(D) Property.

Question 4.
Justice la administered by:
(A) Executive
(B) Judiciary
(C) Legislature
(D) Political Parties
Answer:
(B) Judiciary

Question 5.
Justice Is essentially a:
(A) Legäl concept
(B) Moral concept
(C) Socia) concept
(D) All of the Above.
Answer:
(D) All of the Above.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 12 Western Sociological Thinkers

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Who is known as the father of Sociology?
(a) Anguste Comte
(b) Karl Marx
(c) Durkheim
(d) Max Weber
Answer:
(a) Auguste Comte

2. In which year the word Sociology was used for the first time?
(a) 1840
(b) 1839
(c) 1842
(d) 1844
Answer:
(b) 1839

3. When was Karl Marx born?
(a) 1820
(b) 1822
(c) 1818
(d) 1816
Answer:
(c) 1818

4. Who wrote Communist Manifesto?
(a) Weber and Marx
(b) Marx and Durkheim
(c) Durkheim and Weber
(d) Marx and Engles
Answer:
(d) Marx and Engles

5. According to Marx, how many classes are there?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
(d) Five
Answer:
(a) Two

6. Which of these classes present in every type of society?
(a) Capitalist Class
(b) Labour Class
(c) a + b
(d) None of these
Answer:
(c) a + b

7. According to Karl Marx, what is the reason of class struggle in society?
(a) Exploitation of labourers by capitalists
(b) Exploitation of capitalists by labourers
(c) Historical problems between the both
(d) All of these
Answer:
(a) Exploitation of labourers by capitalists

8. Which of these concepts was given by Karl Marx?
(a) Class struggle
(b) Historical Materialism
(c) Theory of Surplus value
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

9. When was Durkheim born?
(a) 1870
(b) 1858
(c) 1964
(d) 1868
Answer:
(b) 1858

10. Who is known as the successor of Comte in France?
(a) Weber
(b) Marx
(c) Durkheim
(d) Spencer
Answer:
(c) Durkheim

11. Which of these books was written by Durkheim?
(a) Division of labour in society
(b) Suicide-A study of Sociology
(c) The Rules of Sociological Method
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

12. Which of these concept was given by Durkheim?
(a) Division of Labour
(b) Social Fact
(c) Suicide
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

13. How many types of Social Facts are given by Durkheim?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
(d) Five
Answer:
(b) Three

14. Which of these concepts was given by Weber?
(a) Authority
(b) Ideal type
(c) Social action
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Karl Marx was a ……………… philosopher.
Answer:
German

2. Max Weber gave the concept of Social …………….
Answer:
action

3. The concept of division of labour was given by ……………….
Answer:
Durkheim

4. Historical materialism is the contribution of ………………
Answer:
Karl Marx

5. Karl Marx gave the theory of Class ……………..
Answer:
struggle

6. According to Weber, ……………… religion is responsible for the advent of capitalism.
Answer:
Protestant

7. The theory of suicide was given by ……………….
Answer:
Durkheim

True/False:

1. Durkheim was born in France.
Answer:
True

2. Durkheim explained about three types of suicide.
Answer:
True

3. Weber gave four types of authority.
Answer:
False

4. According to Marx, there are three types of classes in society.
Answer:
False

5. Labour class exploits the capitalist class.
Answer:
False

6. The concept of social solidarity was given by Dürkheim.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
Who is known as the father of Sociology?
Answer:
Auguste Comte is known as the father of Sociology.

Question 2.
When was the word Sociology used for the first time?
Answer:
An 1839 A.D. the word Sociology was used for the first time.

Question 3.
When and where was Karl Marx born?
Answer:
Karl Marx was born on 5th May, 1818 at Rearcity of Ryan state of Prussia.

Question 4.
When and where did Karl Marx receive his Doctrate?
Answer:
Karl Marx received his Doctrate in 1841 at Jena University.

Question 5.
When and who wrote ‘Communist Manifesto’?
Answer:
Karl Marx and Engles wrote ‘Communist Manifesto’ in 1848 A.D.

Question 6.
When did Karl Marx die?
Answer:
Karl Marx died on 14th March, 1883.

Question 7.
According to Karl Marx, how many classes are there in society?
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, there exist two classes in society, Capitalist class and Labour class.

Question 8.
Name the Concepts given by Karl Marx.
Answer:
Class Struggle, Historical Materialism, Dialectic Materialism, Social Change, Alienation, Surplus Value etc.

Question 9.
Who is known as the successor of Comte in France?
Answer:
Emile Durkheim is known as the successor of Comte in France.

Question 10.
In which university, Durkheim was appointed as a professor in Sociology?
Answer:
In Paris University, Durkheim was appointed as a professor in Sociology.

Question 11.
Name the Concepts given by Durkheim.
Answer:
Social Fact, Suicide, Religion, Division of Labour etc.

Question 12.
Name the types of authority given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Max Weber gave three types of authority-traditional, legal and charismatic.

Question 13.
According to Weber, which religion is responsible for the emergence of capitalism?
Answer:
Weber was of the view that Protestant religion was responsible for the emergence of capitalism,

Question 14.
Name the concepts given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Authority and its types, domination, ideal type Capitalism, Protestant Ethics and the spirit of capitalism, social action, Verstehen etc.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Capitalist Class?
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, Capitalist Class is that which owns all the means of production with the help of which it exploits all the other classes. With the help of means of production, it earns more money and spends its leisureful life. Marx was of the view that one day will come when labour class will throw away its power and authority.

Question 2.
What is Labour Class?
Answer:
According to Marx, labour class is that which does not own any means of production. It does not have any money or wealth. It does not have anything to sell except its labour to earn its livehood. It is always exploited by the capitalist class.

Question 3.
What is Social Solidarity?
Answer:
According to Durkheim, each society has some of its own ideals, beliefs, ways of behaviour, institutions and laws which bind it. Due to such elements, solidarity is maintained in society. They help in the formation of social relations and create unity in society which is known as social solidarity.

Question 4.
What is Capitalism?
Answer:
Capitalism is an economic system in which private property is of great importance and there is negligible govt, control on the market. Every one earns according to his qualification and ability. In Capitalism, capitalist earns more money with the help of its existing resources and exploits the labour class.

Question 5.
What is Division of Labour?
Answer:
According to Durkheim, division of labour is the division of work among the people or groups, according to their ability so that the work could be done in an organised and efficient way. It exists in every society. It does not originate but it gradually develops.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Class Struggle?
Answer:
Karl Marx has studied two classes in every society. According to him, in every society two opposite classes are there. One who exploits and other who is exploited by first one and there is always a struggle in them. To this struggle Marx has given the name of Class struggle. The class which exploits, to whom he gives the name of Capitalist class or Bourgouise, has all the means of production. With these means of production it always tries to suppress the other classes. Second class to which he has given the’name of Labour class or Proletariats, don’t have any means of production. They don’t have anything to earn their livelihood except to sell their labour. They are always exploited by Capitalist class. A continuous struggle is always going on in these both the classes. To this struggle Marx has given the name of ‘Class Struggle’.

Question 2.
When class and class struggle will come to an end?
Answer:
Under the leadership of labour class with the help of class struggle, the tools of state will come in its hands and then the age of Socialism will start. According to Marx, “State is the biggest tool in the hands of capitalists to exploit others.” After the revolution, Feudalism and Capitalism will try for anti revolution. That’s why the stage of Socialism from Capitalism is the temporary stage of authority of labourers. After the establishment of Socialism, exploitation will come to an end, groups also will come to an end and every one will be able to get according to his labour. But in the developed stage of communism every one will be able to get according to his needs. Slowly and slowly the state will disintegrate and the institution based on cooperation will come into being and class and class struggle will come to an end.

Question 3.
What is Capitalist Class?
Answer:
Marx has given the concept of Capitalist Class. According to him, one group in society is of that type which has all the means of production and which is the owner of all the means of production. With the help of its means of production it always exploits other classes. With the help of its means it earns more money and becomes more and more rich. Because of the ownership of money and means of production the capitalist lives a luxurious life. It is a developing class which has become the powerful owner of production forces in a short span of time. It stops the social progress and exploits the labour class. One day will come when the labour class will throw away their authority and will establish a Socialist Society.

Question 4.
What is Labour class or Proletariat class?
Answer:
According to Marx, there are two classes in society—Capitalist class and labour class. Labour class doesn’t have the ownership of means of production. It doesn’t have any money. It doesn’t have any other way to earn their livelihood except selling its labour. They are always exploited at the hand of capitalist class. Capitalist class always take more work from them and pays less money for their work, Because of the labour of labour class always produces surplus value and keeps it with themselves. Because of this exploitation labourer will become poorer and poorer. One day will come when a struggle will start in both the classes and labour class will throw the capitalist class from their authority and Socialist Society will be established.

Question 5.
What is meant by Capitalism?
Answer:
About Capitalism Marx was of the view that the reason of exploitation is Capitalism. Capitalists always taking away everything economically from labourers. They are taking extra work from labourers but are not paying them enough money. The capitalist is taking away the whole surplus value produced by labourer. Labourers are forced to do more work than the definite time. Capitalists are taking advantage of thier economic condition and are not giving them enough money. In this condition one day will come when all the labourers will unite and throw away the whole Capitalism.

Question 6.
What is a Social Fact?
Answer:
In every type of society some facts are there which are different from materialistic, Biological—Psychological facts. This type of facts Durkheim calls as social facts. Durkheim has given some definitions of social fact. At one place Durkheim writes, “Social facts are those ways of thinking, doing work and feeling which has the special characteristics to maintain its existence exterior to the individual consciousness.” At one more place Durkheim writes, “Social facts are those ways of working, thinking and feeling which are exterior to man and which controls the men by their power of constraint.”

Question 7.
Give Types of Social Fact.
Answer:
Durkheim has described two types of social facts—Normal social fact and Pathological social fact. Normal social facts are those facts which are scattered everywhere in the human society and if they are not common among all the persons then atleast they are common in most of them. Pathological social facts are those social facts which are not scattered everywhere in human society but are available at some places or at some particular place.

Question 8.
What is Division of Labour?
Answer:
According to Durkheim, meaning of division of labour is division of functions among different people according to their ability and capacity. Works are divided in this so that the work could be done in an organized way. Division of labour is a social fact, moral system and a universal phenomenon which exist in all the societies. It does not originate but it develops.

Question 9.
What is Social Solidarity?
Answer: Durkheim says that in every society some values, ideas, beliefs, ways of behaviour, institutions and laws are there which binds the society in one knot. Because of these elements, the relations and unity or solidarity exists in society. These elements increase acceptance and solidarity in society. This type of solidarity is known as social solidarity. If these elements start to disintegrate then the society will also start to disintegrate.

Question 10.
What is meant by Mechanical solidarity?
Answer:
According to Durkheim Mechanical solidarity can be seen in the repressive laws of society. The basis of this solidarity are the similarities exist among the members of society. The society in which the life of members is full of similarities, where general norms of thoughts, beliefs, functions, life styles and ideas are there and the society which thinks, works as a collective unit on the basis of these similarities shows mechanical solidarity. Its members are united like parts of a machine. In old primitive socieities, mechanical solidarity was there.

Question 11.
What is meant by Organic solidarity?
Answer:
Darkheim says that second type of solidarity is organic solidarity. In modern societies man is not directly united with group. In these socieities, there is a lot of importance of mutual human relations. That’s why Durkheim was of the view that Restitutive laws are important in modern socieities. In the societies, which are based on differences, humans are dependent upon each other. Each individual can specialize in one field and for other works, he is dependent upon others. This interdependence of members of group or society and their personal inequalities force them to come closer to each other. It leads to establishment of solidarity in society. This, according to Durkheim, is organic solidarity.

Question 12.
Give four differences between Mechanical and Organic solidarity.
Answer:

• We can see mechanical solidarity in repressive laws but organic solidarity could be seen in restitutive laws of society.
• Mechanical solidarity is based on similarities but organic solidarity is based on division of labour.
• Mechanical solidarity lies in the hands of collective representation but organic solidarity lies in the hands of functional differences.
• Mechanical solidarity establishes direct relations between an individual and society but in organic solidarity no direct relation is there between society and an individual.

Question 13.
What is Ideal Type?
Answer:
Weber has used the term Ideal Type not to indicate any ideal thought or some normative ideology but as a specific name for general nomenclature of the social phenomena or the social events. This is based on rational understanding and characteristics. This ideal type forms the basis of his methodology. In fact, this ideal type is an attempt at a scientific explanation of the social phenomenon. Martindale has defined it in these words, “Ideal types are hypothetical concrete individuals constructive out of their relevant components by researchers for the purpose of instituting precise comparison.” Ideal type is not a general or abstract concept but they are such assumed ideal units that have a realistic acceptance.

Question 14.
What is Social Action?
Answer:
According to Weber, social action is very much different from individual action. While giving its definition Weber has written, “Action is social in so far as, by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by the acting individual or it takes into account of the behaviour of others and is there by oriented in its course.” Weber has not recognised very overaction as a social action. Social action has to be guided by the object or the meaning because of which it has been done. Similarly, it is to have a social connotation. Every action or any action that is guided towards inanimate object alone, is not a social action. It has to be a meaningful orientation to the actor imitating it.

Question 15.
What is Legal Authority?
Answer:
Authority based upon formal rules and laws is known as legal authority. This type of authority is being given by laws or rules of the country. Jurisdiction of the concerned person is being given in this. Authoritative person uses this type of authority according to the definite rules and he can be punished if he will go beyond his Jurisdiction. All the persons, who have got legal authority, don’t have same type of authority but the authority of the concerned person depends upon his post. There is a definite hierarchy among the different posts.

Question 16.
What is meant by Traditional Authority?
Answer:
Authority given on the basis of Social values, folkways, mores, traditions, customs etc. is known as traditional authority. No written rules or laws are behind this authority. Traditional authority always depends upon unwritten rules. Social Sanction is the main force behind this type of authority. If anyone defies this type of authority then he is punished by social boycot. Example of this type of authority is head of the joint family in Indian Society. Authority of Brahmins in caste sytem was also based upon traditions.

Question 17.
What is Charismatic Authority?
Answer:
The source of individual authority can be completely different from traditional authority. The power of order can be used by a leader, a prophet, a hero etc. but this type of person can be a charismatic leader if he has any magical power, revelation or any other extraordinary quality and he has some sort of charisma.

This type of authority is neither based on legislative rules and nor on tradition but is based on some sort of charisma. This type of power only those people who have some charismatic forces. It takes a lot of time to achieve this type of authority. In other words the person should develop his personality in such a way that the people should be able to understand that this person has developed some charismatic powers and people accept his authority. Magicians, Prophets, Pir, Military-General, Religious leaders come in this type of category.

Question 18.
What were Weber’s views about Social Actibn?
Answer:

• Weber says that social action can be influenced by the past, present or future’s behaviour of other persons. If we are doing any action for the answer of our past action then it will be a past action. If we are doing any action in present then it will be a present action and if we will do any action while keeping in mind the future then it will be a futuristic action.
• Weber says that every type of external action cannot be a social action. Exterior action can be non-social action if it is influenced by non-living things.
• Few human contacts can come in the category of social action upto that extent when these contacts are influenced by the meaningful behaviour of others.
• If so many persons are doing some action then it cannot be called a social action and that action also cannot be called a social action which is only influenced by other persons.

Question 19.
Law of three stages.
Answer:
In the field of Sociological concepts, Comte has given a very important contribution and that is the concept of ‘Law of three stages’ given by him. He has written about this concept in his famous book ‘Positive Philosophy’. Comte gave this concept in 1822 when he was only 24 years of age. Comte got the thought of this law from ‘Conderecet’, Turoget and from ‘Saint Simon’. Comte wrote that the human knowledge was not developed at once. It came through a number of stages. Comte says that by studying the intellectual development of man in all ages and societies, we can come to know about its base and basic law under which man’s thinking is there and whose concrete result is included in the facts of our structure and in our historical experiences. These laws are like this. Our every main concept, every branch of our conceptual knowledge goes through three different stages and these three stages are :

• Theological or Fictitious Stage
• Metaphysical or Abstract Stage
• Scientific or Positive Stage

In simple words, the meaning of this law is that when humans wanted to get knowledge about any subject then they were thinking on the theological basis. With the passage of time, people started to get knowledge about any subject on metaphysical basis instead of theological basis. But again with the passage of time, instead of using these two bases, -people started to understand any phenomena on positivistic basis. In first stage fiction, in second stage feeling and in third stage rational or reason became important.

Question 20.
Theological stage.
Answer:
In the conceptual scheme of Comte this theological stage is of great importance. According to him to understand the beginning of social evolution, evaluation of first stage is must. In theological stage thoughts or views of man were fiction or of imagination. Man sees, believes and understands all things as a result of actions at that time of God. They believe that all things whether they are living or non-living are supernatural. It means that there exists some supernatural power in all the things. While talking about human thoughts in religious stage Comte says that in theological stage while finding the essential nature of the universe and while finding the last reasons of natural phenomena human mind believes that all phenomena are the proof of the phenomena of supernatural beings.

In this stage man believed too much in magic and totemism. He believed that in every object, one God or soul or the other resides. That’s why they had separate gods for separate things. As a result of this a number of Gods multiplied. When this number became quite large then an hierarchical order was established and the most important God was placed at first. According to Comte, this stage can be divided in three different sub-stages and these three sub-stages are :

• Fetishism
• Polytheism
• Monotheism

Question 21.
Metaphysical stage.
Answer:
Comte has called this stage the revolutionary time of modern society. This stage lasts long for five centuries and infact it was started in 14th century and lasted upto 19th century. We can divide this passage of time in two parts. In first part revolutionary movement was started automatically or by itself. Second part started in 16th century. In this negative principle was started whose main aim was social change. The start of revolutionary stage can be accepted as from the time of differentiation of spiritual and worldly powers of monotheism. Revolutionaly Philosophy was started from the arrival of Protestentism in 16th century. Here one thing should be kept in mind that in Roman Catholicism the differentiation of spiritual and worldly powers has also encouraged the theological questions to think over the social problems. The second part of metaphysical stage can be divided in three parts. In first part old system came on to an end automatically at the end of 15th century.

In second stage Protestentism came in front of us. Here there was complete independence of observation but it was limited only to Christian religious matter. In third stage deism came forward in 18th century. It has broken all the limits of observation and said that it has no limit. In this stage the middle aged Philosophy and experts of Law came forward and got higher status in society. These both attacked a lot on Catholic System. Because of it Spiritualism came down. Feudal Society and higher class also see a lot of downfall in them. Protestantism has shown the way of wider independence with the help of which people became ready to finish the social and intellectual elements of old system. In this stage Negative philosophy was established.

Question 22.
Positivism stage.
Answer:
At the start of this stage two things are important. First thing is this that Comte views it as Industrial society. Second thing is that he believes that it was started in 14th century. It means that this stage was started in comparison with metaphysical or revolutionary stage but in 19th century it started to gain momentum. One difference came into being between the concept and its usage in this stage. Intellectual imagination was divided in three parts. These are Industrial, Asthetic and scientific or philosophical. These three stages are matching with three aspects of every subject like Good or Useful, Beautiful and Truth. From these three parts the most important part is industrial part on the basis of which we can- compare primitive society with modern stage. The special quality of industrial movement was the birth of political independence. One more quality is its revolutionary aspect.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Law of Three Stages:

Question 1.
Explain Comte’s theory of Law of Three Stages.
Or
What do you know about Comte’s Law of Three Stages? Give in detail.
Answer:
In the field of sociological theories, one of the major contribution of Comte is the theory of Law of Three Stages. He gave this theory in his book ‘Positive Philosophy. He created this concept in 1822 when he was only 24 years of age. Comte got this concept from Conderecet, Turoget and Saint Simon. Comte was of the view that human knowledge and contemplation processes did not develop momentarily. It has crossed many stages, Comte was of the view that after studying human intellectual development in all ages, we come to know about the basic rules under which human contemplation does occur and its result is included in our historical experiences and organisational facts.

All of our major concepts, every branch of knowledge has gone through three separate theoretical conditions and these are—Theological or fictious stage, Metaphysical or abstract stage and Scientific or positive stage. In simple words, this rule says that initially in human life, when people wanted to get knowledge on any subject, they thought about it on theological base. Gradually, instead of thinking on theological level, people started thinking on metaphysical level. Later on, humans left both the levels and started to observe any phenomenon on scientific or positive level. In first stage, imagination was important. Feeling in second stage and reason in third stage became important.

Comte made this law on the basis of different aspects of human nature. There are three important aspects of human nature and these are :

1. Feelings. Human feelings motivate a person to do work and these feelings serve his functions.
2. Thought. An individual always thinks to satisfy his feelings and makes a few thoughts. These thoughts take responsibility of satisfying such feelings and help in regulating them.
3. Action. Humans do work (action) to satisfy their feelings.

Comte was of the view that an individual can live life after maintaining balance in all the three aspects of his nature. If human feelings are different, he thinks differently and acts differently, he cannot live a simple life. In this way, there is a need of a system of knowledge, institutions and beliefs for the existence and continuation of a system regulating behaviour between social individuals. It can lead to the successful establishment of ideological relations between different members of society.
Comte studied the history of human society and said that for giving answer to the given problem, three social systems developed, during the course of time, which had such co-ordination. These three systems were :

• Theological Stage
• Metaphysical Stage
• Positive Stage.

1. Theological Stage. Theological stage has an important place in the conceptual scheme of Comte. According to Comte to understand the beginning of social evolution, the proper observation of first stage is necessary. He believed that in theological stage, all the human ideas were imaginative. Humans always considered every thing as a consequence of activities of a supernatural power i.e. God. He believed that in all the things—alive or lifeless, that supernatural power exists. About human views in theological stage, Comte writes that human brain believed that all the events occurred in the world, are the proof of instant events of that supernatural power. According to Comte, this stage can be divided into three sub stages and these are :

1. Fetishism. Comte established social mobility as a basic element in his philosophy and used it to study human society. Comte believed that his basic element will help in the re-establishment of social sciences. Comte believed that theological stage starts with fetishism. In human thinking, it was a naturally born idea that all the external things have humans like life. At this stage feelings were more dominant than intellectual life. The basic element of fetishism philosophy was the belief that some unidentified influences on human life come forward due to actions of few . things which they considered are alive. Fetishism is an impaired form of theology but is one of its sources.

Fetishism had a close relation with morality, language, intellect and society. At the initial level of human life, sentiments were quite dominant and that is why much stress was given on morality and moral values. Language had no symbolic base. Comte believed that human language has a formative structure. At intellectual level, fetishism was a thumping system. At this stage, humans could only understand theological concepts. There were very few natural phenomenon of which he had personal experience and about which he had very good knowledge. Consequently, the level of this stage’s civilization was of low level. At social level, fetishism gave birth to a specific type of priesthood or clericalism. In this, priests came into being who were astrologers and knew the art of magic. In this stage, humans had direct relation with everything. That is why priesthood or clericalism did not develop in an organised way. The fetish gods did not influence much human life. Consequently, there was not any chance of the birth of intellectual class in this stage.

Here one thing should be kept in mind that in the sub stage, humans started conquering over nature. The most important aspect in this sub stage was the domestication of animals. Comte was of the view that Polytheism, which is the second sub stage, beginning was started in Fetishism. He takes this stage to a historical level. To reach the second sub stage of theological stage, the most important change came at intellectual level was the change in human views about stars. Stars were worshipped in fetishism but when they reached the level of Gods, it took a concrete form.

2. Polytheism. This stage remained for the maximum time. To explain this sub stage, Comte tells us about his analysis method. He tells us that our analytical method must study abstractly the major features of polytheism. After that, polytheism must be analysed in the context of its features. Basically, Polytheism was completely against every type of scientific explanation but the beginning of science started in this stage. Actually reaching polytheism from fetishism was one of the major achievements of human intellect. The social thought of polytheism can be observed from two sides and these are political and moral.

1. Political Structure. Humans sowed the seeds of politics, right from the beginning, in many ways. Initially in politics, military features such as courage and strength were the most important aspects in politics. Later on intelligence and diplomacy became the base of politics. According to Comte, there were many aspects of political structure in Polytheism such as, religious wars (crusades) and military system. In this sub stage, religion gained social importance. Religious festivals in the Greek civilisation express this aspect very well. Except this, in this sub stage, there was a need of military development. The major reason of military development was that without this, the political structure and its progress was almost impossible. Polytheism not only established military discipline but it maintained this discipline as well. Political structure of Polytheism had two important features and these were slavery and centralisation of spiritual and temporal forces.

2. Morality. The above given explanation of political structure clearly tells us that morality, at this stage, was not in good shape. According to Comte, under the system of slavery, personal, familial and social relations became corrupt to a great extent. Except this, in comparison with political structure, morality was at its lower level. -According to

Comte, Polytheism had three phases :

1. Comte gives the name of Egyptian phase to the first phase. Intellectual and social elements of primary phase can develop only when whole power comes in the hands of priest class. Its important function was to accept different occupations on a large scale. Consequently, in this stage, one important institution came into being which is known as caste system. First of all, caste system developed in the Asian countries. Yet, the caste system emerged out of military system but it curbed the wartime interests and gave authority to the priest class. Caste system did not develop in the western societies. According to Comte, social equalitarianism was the main aspect of the civilisation. Sometimes he seems to agree with Karl Marx when he says that Colonialism was good for the Asian countries because the equalitarianism of western countries played an important role in breaking the clutches of caste system. Its universality is a major proof of its activeness for the human needs. Major role of caste system in the intellectual progress is to differentiate theory and its execution. Politically, its importance was to maintain system and peace in society. Even after having many advantages, this phase was against any type of progress or change.

2. Second phase was Greek or intellectual in which, first time, discrepancy was created between intellectual and social progress. In this stage, in Greece, one such intellectual class took birth which did not do any work except the conceptual framing. That is why it emerged as an alternative to the pries’! class. Its direct impact was on the progress of science. The revolutionary change occurred in this was the progress in Geometry. The progress of philosophy was started with the progress of science.

3. Comte gave the name Roman or Military phase to the third phase. Major achievement of Rome was to make free itself from the priest class. Consequently the authority of Senate was established in Rome or Roman Civilisation. The centralised feature of the Roman Civilisation was its war policy. Main objective of the wars was to establish colonial areas. The development of individual personality was based on war culture. Humans were nurtured under military discipline. The reasons of Rome’s decline can be seen in its expansionist policy.

These three phases of Polytheism had a universal character. Comte observes them as a specimen of Egypt, Greece and Rome. His main objective was to express three types of Polytheism.

3. Monotheism. When Rome united whole of the civilised world, Monotheism got a chance to work on intellectual level to raise the living standard. Intellectual decline of theological philosophy was bound to happen. Comte gave the example of Roman Catholicism to explain this stage. Monotheism basically is a belief system which is independent from the political system. Differentiation of religion and political power was the major achievement of modern age. One of the achievements of Roman Catholicism was to bring morality under its control. Initially, morality was controlled by political needs. In this stage, an independent and effective existence of an intellectual class was established. Consequently differentiation between theory and its usage came into being. Now, there is no need of empirical context to create new theories. To bring reforms in political system, abstract theories can be created. In the same way, talks could take place about the needs of future society.

In Monotheism’s sub stage, feudalism could be considered as a base of modern society. In the field of morality, Roman Catholicism was able to maintain a universal morality. It helped in creating different moralities such as personal morality, familial and social morality but there was an intellectual decline in this stage. In comparison to this stage, Polytheism was having better opportunities of intellectual progress.

2. Metaphysical Stage. Comte gave the name of revolutionary time of modern society to this stage. This stage remained for five centuries i.e. from 14th till 19ril centuries. This stage can be divided into two parts. In first part, revolutionary movement started without any deliberate efforts. Second stage started in the 16th century. One negative theory started in this whose main aim was to bring social change. The time of revolutionary stage could be considered at the time of differentiation of spiritual and worldly powers in Monotheism. Revolutionary philosophy started in 16th century with the advent of ‘Protestantism’. Second part of Metaphysical stage can be divided into three phases :

• In first phase, old system automatically ended in the later part of 15th century.
• In second phase, Protestantism came into being. In this, there was a complete right of observation but it remained confined with the Christian religion. It broke the limits of observation and said that it has no limits.
• In third stage, Deism came forward in the 18th century. It broke the limited limits of observation. This phase established the authority of medieval philosophy and legal experts. These both gave a great blow to the Catholic system. Consequently, spiritualism declined which greatly affected the world. Feudalism and upper classes also declined. Protestantism gave birth to universal freedom and consequently people became ready to remove social and intellectual elements of ancient system. Negative philosophy was also established in this stage.

3. Positive Stage. To understand the beginning of positive stage, two things should be kept in mind. First of all, Comte considered it as Industrial society. Secondly, he considers the beginning of this stage also from the 14th century. It means that the positive stage also started with the revolutionary stage but it started dominating in the 14th century. In the positive stage, one difference occurred in its concept and usage. Intellectual imagination was divided in three phases and these were’ industrial, aesthetic and scientific. All of these phases were similar in three aspects of each subject such as good or profitable, beautiful and truth. Most important aspect out of these is industrial on the basis of which, we can compare ancient society with modern system. Major feature of the industrial aspect was the advent of political freedom. One of its another feature is its revolutionary nature.

Positivism:

Question 2.
Explain Positivism theory given by Auguste Comte.
Or
Discuss the theory of Positivism given by Comte.
Answer:
Auguste Comte used the word ‘Positivism’ in his book ‘Positive Philosophy’ in a way that it became polemical. Actually, he used this word as an ideological weapon to struggle against the revolutionary culture. Comte’s main objective, to understand social phenomenon, was to dismiss critical and destructive theories of negative philosophy and, in place of it, to establish formative and constructive theories of positive philosophy. In other words, main objective of Comte was to bring social study and research at scientific level. Positivism wanted to use methods of natural sciences in social studies and to make social sciences more realistic such as Physics, Chemistry etc. He believed that through positivism, real and positive knowledge could be attained. He said that through their practical use, social progress could be made possible. Real and positive knowledge will become strong base of social reorganisation. In this way, the ultimate objective of positivism is social reconstruction or reorganisation.

Now the question is that what is meant by the concept of Positivism given by Comte. In simple words, the scientific method used by Comte to study social phenomenon is positivism. Comte adopted this method as study method from Huem, Kont and Gaul. He used positivism while formulating his theories but never gave its clear cut explanation in his books. He never tried to prove the correctness of its rules. He did so deliberately because he believed that the explanation of method cannot be differentiated from the study of its phenomenon which can be found through these methods.

After studying Comte’s writings, we can say that the meaning of positivism is a scientific method. Scientific method is the method in which, to understand and explain any subject matter, there is no place of imagination, guessing, exchange etc. It is a systematic functional method of observation, experience, classification, comparison and scientific method. In this, to understand and to gain any knowledge of any subject, the scientific method based on observation, experience, classification, comparison and historical method is known as positivism.

Chamblis explained the meaning of Comte’s positivism in these words. Comte rejected the thing that positivism is antitheist because, in any form, it is not attached with supernaturality. He also believed that positivism is not fatalist because it accepts that change can come in outer phase. It is also not optimistic because it lacks the metaphysical base of optimism. Positivism is related with reality, not with imagination, is related with useful knowledge, not with complete knowledge. It is related with those definite facts whose pre-knowledge is possible. It is also related with real knowledge, not with indefinite ideas. In short, positivism is the system of ideas which is universally accepted.

From the given description, it is clear that positivism is the scientific method based on observation, explanation, classification, comparison and historical method through which the real and positive knowledge about any subject is gained. While following Huem and Kont, Comte was clear about the fact that what any science should achieve and what it should try to achieve. The scope of scientific knowledge is limited. Such logics are included in scientific knowledge which are about the relations of traditions and can be checked. These logics, are of two types :

• Uniformity of co-existence
• Uniformities of succession.

During the times of Comte, natural sciences such as mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology were completely developed and the study of their subject matter was done through scientific method. But Comte was not satisfied with the study system of social phenomenon through prevailing hypostatical and religious methods. He gave the utmost importance to scientific method. He was in favour of bringing social study system into the scientific study system of observation, classification, analysis etc. Comte was of the view that, with the help of systematic functional systems based on observation, experience, classification etc., the study of not only natural phenomenon is possible but the study of society is also possible because society is a part of nature. The way in which natural phenomenon are based on few definite rules, in the same way, as a part of nature, social phenomenon also occur according to certain rules.

Social phenomenon never occur suddenly but occur according to pre-determined rules. It means that the study of collective life and its related basic rules is realistically possible. This is the basic concept of positivism. So, it is clear that Comte’s Positivism is not based on imagination but is based on the systematic functional system of observation, comparison, classification, historical method which explains social tradition and instead of finding reasons, it gives more stress on finding causal-effect relationship.

It is clear from the given description that in positivistic system, initially we select a topic and then, through observation, we collect all the related facts. In the eyes of Comte, observation is the major method to study any phenomenon, natural or social. After this, it is explained, analysed and on the basis of general features, they are classified. In the end, related with the topic, conclusions are drawn and they are verified by using comparison and historical method.

Theory Of Social Action:

Question 3.
Discuss Max Weber’s theory of Social Action.
Answer:
Among the propounders of the theory of Social Action, Max Weber is quite prominent. Weber gave a detailed and scientific explanation of the theory,of Social Action. Only through the concept of Social Action, Weber explains scientific nature of Sociology. A number of Sociologists, such as Raymond Aaron, Irwing Zetlin, Bogardax, Rex etc. criticised Max Weber and they started their work of criticism only with the theory of Social Action. Before the beginning of this theory, we must keep in mind that there must be no technical difference between action and behaviour. It is necessary for the members of the society to interact with others for the formation of relations. There is always an objective behind every type of human action. One needs to act to achieve his objective. As a sociologist, one cannot include all the actions in the purview of Social Action. Only such actions come in its purview which are given any particular meaning by the actor. This action of an individual can be external, internal, mental and material. Along with this, actions can be related with any time present, future or past. It means it can be related with any age.

First of all the theory of Social Action was given by ‘Alfred Marshall’. Marshall studied Utilitarianism and developed the concept of action. Marshall considered action as a special category of value. After Marshall, Vilfredo Pareto developed the theory of ‘elites’ and ‘circulation of elites’. In this category, Durkheim gave the theory of ‘Social Fact’.  In modern age, major propounder of the concept of Social Action was Max Weber who gave the concept of meaningful ‘Social Action’. In the same way the names of Weblin, Commons, Karl Manheim, Parsons and Merton are quite important. We can also include the names of William White and C. Right Mills in this category. Max Weber gave his theory of ‘Social Action’ in his book ‘The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation’.

Weber says that social action is very much different from individual action. While defining social action, Max Weber writes that, “That action is social in so far as by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by acting individual it takes account of the behaviour of others and is ther eby oriented in its course.” To explain his concept of social action, Weber divided it into four parts. According to Weber, this classification of Weber is based on the relations with things. Parsons considered it a form of orientation. Gerth and Mills call it as a motivational direction.

Before understanding Weber’s classification of action, we need to understand the concept of Social Action. According to Weber, we need to keep in mind four things before accepting any action as Social Action :

1. Weber believed that social action can be affected by the past, present and future behaviour of other individuals. If we act in accordance with our action of past, it will be a past action. If we act in present time, it is a present action and if we act while keeping in mind future, it will be a future action.
2. Weber says that every exterior action cannot be a social action. Exterior action is non-social which is influenced completely by non-living things.
3. Few human contacts come in the category of social action till the extent that they are related and influenced by meaningful behaviour of others.
4. Action is neither called social if same type of action is done by many and nor it can be called social which is only affected by others. For example, during rain, if every one opens up his umbrella, it cannot be a social action because action of every one is not related with the action of others. Weber says that imitation of someone’s action is not social until your action is having a meaningful relation with others’ action.

Types Of Social Action:

1. Rational Action. Rational Action (also known as value-rational ones, wertrational) is the action which is taken because it leads to a valued goal, but with no thought of its consequences and often without consideration of the appropriateness of the means chosen to achieve it (‘the end justifies the means’). Value rational or Instrumentally rational social action is divided into two groups : rational consideration and rational orientation. Rational consideration is when secondary results are taken into account rationally. This is also considered alternative means when secondary consequences have ended. Determining this mean of action is quite hard and even incompatible. Rational orientation is being able to recognize and understand certain mediums under common conditions. According to Weber, heterogeneous actors and groups that are competing, find it hard to settle on a certain medium and understand the common social action.

2. Instrumental Action (also known as value relation, goal-instrumental ones, zweckrational): actions which are planned and taken after evaluating the goal in relation to other goals, and after thorough consideration of various means (and consequences) to achieve it. An example would be a high school student preparing for life as a lawyer. The student knows that in order to get into college, he/she must take the appropriate tests and fill out the proper forms to get into college and then do well in college in order to get into law school and ultimately realize his/her goal of becoming a lawyer. If the student chooses not to do well in college, he/she knows that it will be difficult to get into law school and ultimately achieve the goal of being a lawyer. Thus the student must take the appropriate steps to reach the ultimate goal.

Another example would be most economic transactions. Value Relation is divided into the subgroups commands and demands. According to the law, people are given commands and must use the whole system of private laws to break down the central government or domination in the legal rights which a citizen possess. Demands can be based on justice or human dignity just for morality. These demands have posed several problems. Even legal formalism has been put to the test. These demands seem to weigh on the society and at times can make them feel immoral.

The rational choice approach to religion draws a close analogy between religion and the market economy. Religious firms compete against one another to offer religious products and services to consumers, who choose between the firms. To the extent that there are many religious firms competing against each other, they will tend to specialize and cater to the particular needs of some segments of religious consumers. This specialization and catering in turn increase the number of religious consumers actively engaged in the religious economy. This proposition has been confirmed in a number of empirical studies.

It is well known that strict churches are strong and growing in the contemporary United States, whereas liberal ones are declining. For lannaccone’s religious experience is a jointly produced collective good. Thus members of a church face a collective action problem. Strict churches, which often impose’ costly and esoteric requirements on their members, are able to solve this problem by weeding out potential free riders, since only the very committed would join the church in the face of such requirements. Consistent with the notion that religious experience is a collective good, lannaccone et al. show that churches that extract more resources from their members (in the form of time and money) tend to grow in membership.

3. Affectional Action (also known as emotional actions) are the actions which are taken due to one’s emotions, to express personal feelings. For example, cheering after a victory, crying at a funeral would be affectional actions. Affectual is divided into two subgroups : uncontrolled reaction and emotional tension. In uncontrolled reaction there is no restraint and there is lack of discretion. A person with an uncontrolled reaction becomes less inclined to consider other peoples’ feelings as much as his own. Emotional tension comes from a basic belief that a person is unworthy or powerless to obtain his/her deepest aspirations. When aspirations are not fulfilled there is internal unrest. It is often difficult to be productive in society because of the unfulfilled life. Emotion is often neglected because of concepts at the core of exchange theory. A common example is behavioral and rational choice assumptions. From the behavioral view, emotions are often inseparable from punishments.

Emotion. Emotions are one’s feelings in response to a certain situation. There are six types of emotion : social emotions, counterfactual emotions, emotions generated by what may happen (often manifested as anxiety), emotions generated by joy and grief (examples found in responses typically seen when a student gets a good grade, and when a person is at a funeral, respectively), thought-triggered emotions (sometimes manifested as flashbacks), and finally emotions of love and disgust. All of these emotions are considered to be unresolved. There are six features that are used to define emotions : intentional objects, valence, cognitive antecedents, physiological arousal, action tendencies, and lastly physiological expressions. These six concepts were identified by Aristotle and are still the topic of several talks.

4. Rational choice theorists, on the other hand, believe that all social actions are rationally motivated. Rationality means that the actions taken are analyzed and calculated for the greatest amount of (self)-gain and efficiency. Rational choice theory although increasingly colonized by economist, it does differ from microeconomic conceptions. Yet rational choice theory can be similar to microeconomic arguments. Rational choice assumes individuals to be egoistic and hyperrational although theorists mitigate these assumptions by adding variables to their models.

5. Traditional actions. Actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations. An example would be putting on clothes or relaxing on Sundays. Some traditional actions can become a cultural artifact. Traditional is divided into two subgroups: customs and habits. A custom is a practice that rests among familiarity. It is continually perpetuated and is ingrained in a culture. Customs usually last for generations. A habit is a series of steps learned gradually and sometimes without conscious awareness. As the old cliche goes, “old habits are hard to break” and new habits are difficult to form.

Social Action models help to explain social outcomes because of basic sociological ideas such as the Looking Glass Self. The Idea of Cooley’s Looking Glass Self is that our sense of self develops as we observe and reflect upon others and what they may think of our actions. Additionally, impression formation processes allow us to interpret the significance of others’ actions.
Social Actions and Institutions Model. An ‘institution’ consists of specialized roles and settings that are linked together semantically, with the complex typically being devoted to serving some function within society.

In sociological hierarchy, social action is more advanced than behavior, action and social behaviour, and is in turn followed by more advanced social contact, social interaction and social relation.
Weber said that social actions are directed in three ways :

1. Traditional Usage: It means that which is edited on the basis of tradition. Social customs affect human actions. Consequently human actions never move away from social traditions which led to the maintenance of social decorum.
2. Interest: The meaning of interest is by such similarities in which actions could be understood in the form of prudential guidance.
3. Legitimate Order: In this, actions are directed by actor’s ideals.

Authority-Concept And Types:

Question 4.
What is meant by Authority? Explain the types of authority given by Max Weber.
Answer:
Human activities are always according to social structure. In each organised group, elements of authority are always there. In an organised group, few general members are there and few other members are there who are given responsibility as well as authority. Few persons work as administrators. Composition of a group is always according to this rule of authority which states that few are empty handed and few are given enough. Legal or sanctioned form of power is known as authority. Meaning of sanction of power is by that power which is sanctioned by society. This sanction can be given through written rules, laws, traditions or written norms. Power is the capacity of a person or a group of influencing other’s behaviour according to one’s wish. Power is an institutionalised concept and Weber’s analysis is in this direction. Weber has given three basic types of authority and these are :

1. Legal Authority
2. Traditional Authority
3. Charismatic Authority

1. Legal Authority. The authority based upon formal rules and laws is known as legal authority. This type of authority is being given by laws or rules of the country. Jurisdiction of the concerned person is being given is this. Authoritative person uses this type of authority according to the definite rules and he can be punished if he will go beyond his jurisdiction. All the persons, who have got legal authority, don’t have some type of authority but the authority of the concerned person depends upon his post. There is definite hierarchy among the different posts..

There are certain rules in using authority which keep restrictions on those who use authority. Authority differentiates his personality as an individual and as an authoritative person. It is expected from him to keep all of his activities in written form. In this way State makes certain rules according to which few statuses are there with which some authority is associated. So if any person gets that status, he automatically enjoys the authority associated with that status.

In this type of authority, the source of authority is not the individual prestige of a person but is the authority associated with the rules. For this his scope is limited until the authority is given to him by laws. An individual cannot go beyond the limits of authority which is given to him by his official status or laws. In this way there is a basic difference between his scope of official activities and personal activities. For example, if any one is working as an officer then in office he enjoys certain type of authority which he cannot enjoy at home. At home he enjoys the authority of a father and a husband but not of an officer. In any complex society, legal authority is not the same in every one’s hand but there is definitely a hierarchy in it. It means that in legal authority certain higher and lower authorities are there.

2. Traditional Authority. Authority given on the basis of social values, folkways, mores, traditions, customs etc. is known as traditional authority. No written rules or laws are behind this type of authority. Traditional authority always depends upon unwritten rules. Social sanction is the main force behind this type of authority. If any one defies this type of authority then he is punished by social boycot. Example of this type of authority is head of the joint family in Indian society. Every one obeys the orders of head of the family due to traditions. Authority of Brahmins caste system was also based upon traditions. They are considered as superior to other castes and they have the permission to perform religious rituals. Even today, Brahmin plays a very important role as a religious consultant. In the same way authority of husband over wife is the fine example of traditional authority in Indian society.

This type of authority is not given according to one’s status or is given to any one under certain rules but one enjoys it because authority to him is given by tradition. This status is defined according to traditional system because of which one gets a specific type of authority. In this way authority based on traditional beliefs is known as traditional authority. For example, in earlier times, the authority given to panchs in panchayat was not according to certain rules but was according to traditions associated with the status of panchs. Even the authority of panchs was compared with the authority of God. It means that panch was seen as replica of God. In the same way the authority given to father in a patriarchal society is not according to rules but is based on traditions. We do not follow father’s orders because of any legal authority given to him but we follow him because traditionally this process is going on from the ages. Legal authority is definite and limited according to certain defined rules but this is not the case in traditional authority because traditions are not clearly defined and they don’t have any definiteness. There is no limit of this type of authority. For example, the limit of authority of an officer can be defined but we cannot define his authority as a father or as a husband.

3. Charismatic Authority. The source of charismatic authority can be completely differ ent from traditional authority. The power of order can be used by a leader, a prophet, a hero etc. but this type of person can be a charismatic leader if he has any magical power, revaluation or any other extraordinary quality and he has some sort of charisma. Those people who obey his orders, are his followers who, instead of belie’zing in legal or traditional authority, believe in his charismatic abilities and individual charisma. Those followers can barely be characterized as an organisation and their activi ties are based on the authority of the leaders. Officials of this type of organisation can be designated by ithe leader not by any rule or tradition. They are bounid to the orders given by their charismatic leader.

This type of authority is neither’ based on legislative? rules and nor on tradition but i:s based on some sor-t of charisma. This type of power only those people enjoy who have some charismatic forces. It takes a lot of time to achieve this type of authority. In other words; the person should develop his personality in such a way that the people- should be able to understand that this, person has developed some charismatic powers and people mus?t accept his authority. Magicians, Prophets, Pir, Military General, Religious leaders come in this type of authority. People accept authority of thin type of person because they feel that this person has some charismatic traits; which ordinary people don’t have. Thai’s why they even bow in front of him. This type of au thority don’t have any limit. This type of authority has a feat ure that after some time, it changes into either legal or traditional autho:rity.

Social Fact:

Question 5.
Explain the concept of Social Fact of Durkheim. Critically examine it also. .
Or
Explain the nature and characteristics of Social Fact. Criticise it also.
Answer:
The analysis of‘social fact’ given by Karl Marx is very important. Durkheim’s views about ‘Social Fact’ can be seen in his second main book ‘The Rules of Sociological Method’. Durkheim felt that Sociology cannot be established as independent science until or unless its subject matter is not clear and for the analysis of this there is need of systematic objective methodology. Because of these two objectives Durkheim wrote ‘The Rules of Sociological Method.’Durkheim clearly felt the drawbacks of Sociologists like Comte, Spencer, Mill etc. and clearly wrote, “These Sociologists have gone forward unclear towards the relations between nature of Sociology and Socio-biological areas.”

What are Social Facts? From the point of view of subject matter and study methodology, Durkheim has tried to establish Sociology as an independent Social Science. Durkheim was of the view that Sociology does not include all the human activities in its study’ but it limits itself to the study of social facts. In this chapter Durkheim tries to clarify that actually which facts oan be called as Social Facts? What are the characteristics of social facts and how these can be studied?

While explaining the meaning of Social Fact, Durkheim said that there are many wrong views about social fact and that’s why many misconceptions are there regarding the subject matter of Psychology, Biology and Sociology. Himself Durkheim has written, “Before knowing methodology of social facts we should know that which facts are generally known as ‘Social’? This is also important from this point that the word ‘Social’ has been used in very indefinite way. Today this word is used for that phenomenon which occurs in society. That is a different thing that how much interest that phenomenon have in society. But we don’t have any human phenomenon which cannot be called as social. Every man is sleeping, eating, drinking and thinking and it is in the interest of society that everthing should be done in a systematic way. If we’ll call all these social facts then there will be no independent subject matter of Sociology and there will be a great confusion in Sociology and Psychology and Biology.

While explaining the meaning of social fact, first of all Durkheim said that social facts should be seen as things. Yet Durkheim has not given clear meaning of the word ‘thing’. Durkheim has used the word ‘thing’ in four different meanings. These are :

1. Social fact is that thing which has some characteristics and externally which can be seen.
2. Social fact is that thing which we can know with experience only.
3. Social fact is that thing whose existence is not dependent upon humans,
4. Social fact is that thing about which we can understand externally. But because social fact is like thing so it is not a static concept but it should be taken as moveable concept.

In this way we can see that in every type of society some those type of facts are there which are quite different from Material, Biological and Psychological. To this type of facts Durkheim is calling them social fact. Durkheim has given many definitions of social facts. At one place Durkheim has written, “Social facts are those ways of doing work, thinking and experiencing, in which they have extraordinary characteristic of keeping their existence outside of personal consciousness.” At another place Durkheim has written, “Social facts are the ways of doing work, thinking and experiencing, which are external from man and which controls the man with the help of their power of constraint.”

In the end of first chapter of his book Durkheim gave clear definition of social fact. He wrote, “A social fact is a temporary, permanent way of doing work, which is capable of putting external pressure or every way of doing any work which is available in any society in general form but with that they are independent from personal consciousness and have their independent existence.”

From all these definitions of Durkheim it is clear that way of acting are social facts. In ways of acting all human behaviour are included which are related with his thinking, feeling and acting. These are the parts of social reality. These phenomenon can be temporary or can be permanent. For example in any society there is little bit difference between numbers of suicide, marriages and dead people. It means that their annual rate is .generally static or permanent. So these can be called social facts. In this way ‘God’ cannot be called as social fact because it is always from real observation.

In this way any thought of mind cannot be called as social fact because it doesn’t have any external form. But any concept as rule given by any scholar or any pray, in which Totemism is included, can be called as social fact because their real observation is possible. Language, folk stories, religious beliefs, business laws, actions moral rules are the best examples of social facts because their observation, experimentation is possible and they are external of humans and they are capable to pressurise them.

Characteristics of Social Facts:

On the basis of given description we can say that there are three characteristics of social facts. These are :

1. Exteriority
2. Constraint
3. Generality

1. Exteriority. The first and most important characteristic of social fact is its exteriority. By exteriority it means that it is right that social facts are made by the members of society but when they are developed once then they are not under control of any particular person and they are taken as independent reality. Then they don’t have any internal relation with scientist or maker of that fact and no one can influence these social facts.

To explain exteriority of social facts Durkheim has explained this on the basis of difference between individual consciousness and collective consciousness. According to Durkheim if we will analyse the organization and forms of individual consciousness then it will be clear that the main bases of individual consciousness are sentiments. Sentiments are the results of interaction of different cells. But these sentiments, which develop from different cells, have their own characteristics which are not there before the birth of cells. With collection a system comes in front. To this concept Durkheim is calling ‘Synthesis and Suigeneris. Durkheim believes that the way in which the main base of personal thoughts is the different collection of cells, in that same way the main base of social thoughts is members of society. Collective consciouness is developed from the organization of personal consciousness. In this way “these show the exceptional fact of living outside of individual consciousness.”

2. Constraint. The second characteristic of social fact is its constraint. In other words, social facts have a type of pressure or constraint on man. Social fact cannot be made by one man or by some men, it will be made by many or a number of humAnswer: So that why these are very powerful and they can put effect of constraint on any man. Durkheim was of the view that social facts not only affect the behaviour of man but they affect his way of thinking and doing work. In this way according to Durkheim we can see this characteristic of social fact in this way that it is not according to the interests of humans but the behaviour of humans is according to them. Durkheim is giving a number of explanations to explain this characteristic.

According to him, the behaviour and ways of humans all are influenced by many social facts like moral rules, religious beliefs, economic systems etc. Durkheim has written, “Constraint is their internal characteristic and its proof is that how much I am trying to opposing them they are exerting more pressure or constraint on me. If I will not use the ways of my country, If I will not wear clothes and obey rules of my country then my countrymen will keep me away from them. In actual words these are as effective as punishment. Yet these are indirect but still they are influential.”

At another place Durkheim has written, “It is’not necessary for me to talk with other French people in French language or I should use popular currency, but it will not be possible for me to do work against this. As an industrialist I am free to use old methods of business but if I will do this then definitely I will’ call my destruction. It means that these social facts are exerting on me to work according to them.”

In this way social facts are coming in the category of collective consciousness and collective consciousness is the collection of individual consciousness. This is the consciousness of consciousnesses. A social fact can be seen with the power of constraint pressure.

3. Generality. The third characteristic of social fact is its generality and these have been distributed right from the ancient times till today and these are spread in every sphere of life. These are common to all. These do not belong to any particular person. This generality is not just the collection of many personal facts. They are collective by nature and they are influencing people because of their characteristics of generality and collectiveness. In this way we can see that according to Durkheim, there are three important characteristics of social facts :

1. Social facts are keeping their independent existence from personal thoughts.
2. Social facts have an effect of constraint on humans.
3. They are universal and general and are available everywhere.
   In short, according to Durkheim social fact is the every way of doing work which is external, puts pressure on humans and are general in nature.

Rules For Distinguishing Between Normal and Pathological Facts. In his 3rd chapter Durkheim has given laws for distinguishing normal and pathological facts. Marx has said that the social facts of subject matter of Sociology generally are coming in front of us in two forms. First are those which are according to the accepted behaviour of the society and others are those which are different from these. To these Durkheim has given types of social facts and these are of two types.
Types :

• Normal facts
• Pathological facts

According to Durkheim, science must have power to formulate those rules on the basis of which we can differentiate these normal and pathological facts. Normal social facts are those facts which are spread everywhere in human society and if they are not spread in all then atleast they are spread in most of these.

Pathological social facts are those facts which are not spread everywhere but are spread only in some parts. To clarify Durkheim’s view, Raymond Arron has written, “Any phenomenon is normal at that time when they are found in the special stage of evolution of any particular society.” With this definition of Arron the types of facts will be cleared. According to him any social phenomena or fact will be normal in that condition when it is available in any particular stage of evolution of one particular society. In contrary to that if any fact is not of that type or it don’t have characteristic of this type then it can be called as pathological fact.
Durkheim has given three important rules to -differentiate in Normal and Pathological facts.

1. According to Durkheim, the first important rule of differentiating between these two is Generality. Generality is called to that fact when any characteristic or fact is available in most of the members of the group. According to Durkheim the General Phenomenon available in any society or group can be called as normal. Those phenomenon or facts don’t have this characteristic means the phenomenofi which are not average those will be called as Pathological.

In this way Generality is the main base of differentiating in Normal and Pathological facts but Generality is a neutral concept. It is not sure that we can find all the facts everywhere and in every type of society. We can give two examples to clarify this rule. In U.S.A. ‘Kissing’ at any place is a General Phenomena but it is not in India. In this way ‘untouchability’ was a general phenomena in India before independence but now it is not.

2. The second rule of differentiating between normal and pathological fact according to Durkheim is that all use the result of preceding method (Generality) to show that the Generality of the phenomena is related with the general condition of community life of that society. It means that if it is called any fact as general fact according to first rule then to verify our result we can say that this phenomenon is related with the general conditions of community life of that society. For example, marriage is a social phenomena which can be found in every type of society. It is general because it is related closely with our life.

3. According to Durkheim’s 3rd rule we can verify any social phenomena as formal fact in that condition when that normal fact is available in that society which has not evolutionized fully or which is in underdeveloped condition. It is must in that condition when that particular fact is available in that society which has not evolutionized fully.

Division Of Labour:

Question 6.
What do you know about the concept of Division of Labour given by Durkheim? Give its functions and reasons also.
Or
Write a note on ‘Division of Labour’ as described by Durkheim.
Answer:
In 1893 Durkheim published his first book in French language called ‘De La Division due Trovail Social’. Though it was his first writing yet it was a strong base for his popularity. On this book only he got doctorate from Paris University in 1893. In this great book he has fully explained the social division of labour. Durkheim’s this book has been divided into three parts. In every part he has analysed the different aspects of division of labour. These three parts are :

1. The Functions of Division of Labour
2. Causes and Conditions
3. Abnormal forms of Division of Labour

In the first part of this book ‘Functions of Division of Labour’ he has tried to prove that division of labour is the base of social solidarity. With that from the point of view of scientific study he has explained different forms of Law, types of solidarity, different forms of human relations, crime, punishment, social evolution and some problems of society. In second part of this book he has given detailed explanation of reasons and results of division of labour. In third part of this book he has given some abnormal forms of division of labour.

Here we will give brief description of two parts and with this we will explain the concept of division of labour.

Functions of Division of Labour:

Durkheim accepts every social fact as moral fact. Any social behaviour lives on the base of moral base. As a functionalist first of all Durkheim has given function of division of labour. According to him, division of labour is a social fact, that’s why he started his book from its functional analysis. First of all, Durkheim has given the meaning of function. He has given two meanings of function:

• Meaning of function is from system of movement it means from action.
• Second meaning of function is from this action or movement and from interrelation according to its needs which means the need to be fulfilled by action.

Here Durkheim is using meaning of function from second point of view. In this way by function of division of labour his meaning is that which basic of social existence is fulfilled by the process of division of labour. Function is that in the absence of which, the basic needs of its units cannot be fulfilled. Generally it has been said that the function of division of labour is the development of Society because it is a truth that with the development of division of labour and

• Penal law. These are related with giving suffering, causing loss, to kill and to obstruct independence. We can call them organised Repressive laws.
• Diffused law. Some repressive laws are there which are spread in the whole society or group on the basis of morality. That’s why Durkheim is calling them diffused law.

According to Durkheim, Repressive laws are related with criminal functions. These laws explain the crime and its punishment. These laws also show the basic conditions of collective life of society. Every society has its basic circumstances. So in different societies repressive laws are also different. The power of these repressive laws is based in collective mind and collective mind gets power from equalities.

2. Restitutive law. Another type of law is Restitutive law system. These laws provide balance to the imbalance produced in the human relations. In this group civil laws, business laws, constitutional laws, administrative laws are coming. These laws are not related with the whole society but are related with human. These laws are regulating the balance and imbalance produced in the personal relations of members of society. Restitutive laws are joining individuals and society with some middle institutions.
On the basis of these two types of laws according to Durkheim two types of solidarities can be made. These two types of solidarities are the result of two different types of life styles. Repressive laws are related with general nature of man and with equalities. But Restitutive laws are realted with differences or with division of labour. The type of solidarity which comes due to Repressive Jaws, according to Durkheim, it is Mechanical Solidarity arid the solidarity which comes due to Restitutive laws is called Organic Solidarity whose base is division of labour.

In this way according to Durkheim there are two types of social solidarities :

1. Mechanical Solidarity. According to Durkheim, Mechanical Solidarity can be seen in the repressive laws of society. The basis of this solidarity are the equalities available in the members of society. The society in which the life of members is full of equalities, where general norms of thoughts, beliefs, functions, life style and ideal are there and the society which thinks, works as a collective unit on the basis of these equalities shows mechanical solidarity. Its members are united like a machine. In old primitive socieities mechanical solidarity was there. He was of the view that even crime helps in binding the people in solidarity. In this way there is existence of one social solidarity which comes out of definite conditions of consciousness which are normal for the members of any society. These can be shown by Repressive laws. These are based on the power of collective consciousness.

2. Organic Solidarity. According to Durkheim, second type of solidarity is organic solidarity. The power of Repressive laws is in collective consciousness. Collective consciousness gets power from equalities. In primitive societies repressive laws were there because the base of social life was equalities. According to Durkheim, modern societies are influenced by division of labour and specialization in which instead of equalities, inequalities are the base. This difference of group or collective life gives importance to individual consciousness.

In modern societies man is not directly united with group. In-these societies there is a lot of importance of mutual relations of humAnswer: That’s why he was of the view that in modern societies instead of Repressive laws, Restitutive laws are important. In the societies which are based on differences humans are dependent upon each other. Every human can specialize in one field and for other works he is dependent upon others. This interdependent of members of group or society and their personal inequalities force them to come closer to each other with the help of which solidarity in society would be established. To this type of solidarity Durkheim is saying organic solidarity. This can be seen in restitutive social system.

According to Durkheim, this solidarity is just like Physical solidarity of man. Because of their specialized functions Hand, Feet, Nose, Ear, Eye etc. have different existence as independent parts of body but their function is possible in that condition when they are united with each other. Hand cannot work until or unless it is not joined with body. In other words, there is unity or solidarity between different parts of body but that is dependent upon mutual dependence. With the increase of population, needs also increase. For the growing demands of people division of labour and specialization take place and with that organic solidarity can be seen in modern societies.

3. Contractual Solidarity. After analysing mechanical and organic solidarity Durkheim has also written about one more solidarity which is known as Contractual Solidarity. According to Durkheim, the process of division of labour gives birth to contractual relationships. People of a group are getting the services of each other on the basis of mutual contracts and mutually they are cooperating with each other. It is right that in modern societies people are establishing cooperation and solidarity on the basis of contracts. But the function of division’of labour is not to give birth to contractual solidarity. According to him, contractual solidarity is individual fact, but it is regulated by society.

Social Evolution. Durkheim has explained social evolution on the basis of development of division of labour. He was of the view that the social evolution from primitive society to modern society should be called as result of continuously increasing division of labour. The changes which came in the social life of primitive societies which were easy and based on equalities, all those can be found in the explanation of process of division of labour. In other words, according to Durkheim, the development of division of labour is social evolution.

Causes and Conditions:

Second part of book ‘Division of Labour in Society’ is related with causes, conditions and results and these are given below :
Causes of Division of Labour. Durkheim has explained division of labour on Sociological basis. He has found the causes of division of labour in the conditions of social life and in the social needs produced from them. From this point of view, he had divided the cause of division of labour in two parts :

• Primary Causes
• Secondary Causes,

In Primary causes Durkheim has taken the cause of increase of population and its result. To Secondary reasons he has divided them in two parts and these are increasing unclarity of General consciousness and the decreasing influence of Ancestors. Now we explain them in detail :

(1) Increase in the size and density of Population. According to Durkheim, the increase in size and density of population is the central and Primary reason of division of labour. He says that the increase of population has two aspects—increase in size of population and increase in density of population. These both aspects give birth to division of labour. With the increase in population old primitive societies are disintegrating and new mixed societies are coming into being. Population started to concentrate in few centres. The density of population he has divided in two parts :

• Material Density. From physical point of view concentration of people at one place is material density.
• Moral Density. Because of material density relations of the people are increasing with which actions and reactions are increasing. To the complexity coming out of increased mutual relations and inter-relations Durkheim gives the name of dynamic or moral Density.

(2) Unclarity of Collective Consciousness. In secondary reasons of division of labour he has given first place to unclarity of collective consciousness. In equality based societies, collective consciousness is quite strong because of which members of societies cannot be motivated by individual or personal point of view. Collective feelings are showing them the way. Durkheim was of the view that division of labour and individual specialization is possible in that condition when instead of collective point of view, individual point of view will develop and when individual consciousness suppresses collective consciousness. So according to him the development of division of labour will be slow and difficult if collective consciousness is strong and definite. If this collective consciouness will be loose enough then the’ division of labour will move with quite a good speed.

(3) Ancestral reasons and division of labour. The second cause of division of labour according to Durkheim is the decreasing influence of ancestral influence. How much more influence these ancestral qualities can exert on man that much less chances will be there for change. In other words for the development of division of labour it is must that we should not give importance to ancestral qualities. The development of division of labour is possible only if there will be differences in the nature and behaviour of the people.

The result of classifying people on the base of their ancestral qualities and binding them with their ancestors is that man has not been able to develop his special qualities and does not change. In this way it is an obstacle in the distribution of division of labour. He was of view that with the passage of time ancestral binding will become so weak and their ancestral qualities will also become weak. So slowly and slowly different qualities of people will develop and then division of labour will also develop. In this way we have seen that Durkheim was of the view that increase of population, unclarity of collective consciousness and decreasing influence of ancestral qualities are the causes of division of labour.

3. Consequences of Division of Labour:

After giving primary and secondary factors of division of labour Durkheim gives us the results or consequences which come out of development of division of labour. We should keep in mind that ‘Functions’ and. ‘Consequences’ are two different words. So many facts which just seem like functions of this, are actually consequences of this. He has given a number of consequences of division of labour and some of these are given below :

1. Functional independence and specialization. Durkheim has differentiated between physical division of labour and Social division of labour and has given consequences of social division of labour. According to him, its one result is this that, the way in which work will be divided in that some way the independence of doing work and mobility also increases. Because of division of labour man keeps his special qualities in special function. So according to him, the result of development of division of labour is that the functions of humans become independent from their physical features. In other words human’s structural qualities are not influencing its functional nature.

2. Development of civilization. In the early part of the first part of his book he clarifies that development of civilization is not the function of division of labour because division of labour is a moral fact and all aspects of civilization-industrial, scientific and intellectual aspects don’t have any relation with moral development.

He has given development of civilization as a result of division of labour. He was of the view that the increase in size and density of population makes the development of civilization compulsory. Division of labour arid civilization both develop side by side but division of labour develops first and then because of its result civilization develops. So in this way he was of the view that civilization is not the aim and function of division of labour but it is its compulsory result-.

3. Social development. Development is the result of change. Division of labour gives birth to change. Change is a continuous process in society, so development is also a continuous process in society. According to him, the main result of this change is division of labour. Because of division of labour changes come and with change development comes. In this way social development is the result of division of labour. He said that the main reason of development is society. We change because society changes. Development will stop if the movement of society will be stopped but from scientific point of view it is not possible. So according to him, development is the result of social life.

4. Social Change and Individual Change. Durkheim has also explained social change on the basis of division of labour.The change which happens in individual is the result of changes in society. He was of the view that the main reason of changes of society is the change of size, distribution and density of population which does division of labour in humans are all individual changes. It happens due to result of these social changes.

5. Origin of new groups and interdependence. According to him, one of the results of division of labour is the development of social interest of persons engaged in special functions. For the security of their special interests new groups will be formed. In this way how much more division of labour is there that much more interdependence will be there. Interdependence gives birth to cooperation and division of labour makes compulsory the process of cooperation in social life.

6. Individual Ideology. He was of the view that because of division of labour individual ideology develops. Now there is less control of collective consciousness. Individual independence and specialization gives birth to individual ideology. So in the end because of division of labour individual ideology came into being.

7. Restitutive Laws and Moral Pressure. According to Durkheim, division of labour changes the law system. Because of division of labour mutual relations increase and because of functional relations and complexity, the importance of personal contract reduces. To keep a balance between contractual relations of humans restitutive laws develop. On one side division of labour promotes individualism and on other side it makes moral awareness related to social welfare and social behaviour of the people. According to Durkheim’s views individualism is not the result of human’s wish but is a compulsory result of social circumstances coming out of division of labour.

8. Organic Social Solidarity. To establish the organic solidarity is the function of division of labour. Therefore the end of function is result. That’s why we can take it in the consequences of division of labour.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 6 Liberty-Meaning and Kinds

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is Liberty? Explain the negative and positive aspect of Liberty.
Answer:
Liberty is essential for the development of the personality of the individual. Montesquieu remarked that no other word left so indelible an impression on the mind of the individual as the word liberty. It has indeed been a magic word in history which has inspired millions to revolt. Even today the battle-field of freedom is not silent.

Wherever individuals suffer from injustice, they invoke the name of liberty. Everybody has the feeling that his personality cannot develop without the enjoyment of liberty and, therefore, every individual wants to enjoy maximum degree of liberty. The term liberty is derived from the Latin word ‘liber’ which means ‘free’. In other words, liberty means freedom to do whatever a man likes to do. Liberty is understood in two different ways negative aspect of liberty and positive aspect of liberty.

1. Negative aspect of Liberty:
The negative aspect of liberty means absolute freedom of the individual or i,t means that the individual has the freedom to do anything. Absence of all restraints is the meaning of negative liberty. According to J.S. Mill, liberty means absence of all restraints. J.S. Mill divided man’s sphere of activity into ‘self-regarding’ and ‘other- regarding’ and state interference is justified only in other regarding activities in case his action amounts to an intervention into the domain of the freedom of his fellow-beings.

2. Positive aspect of Liberty:
Real liberty has a positive connotation. It does not mean the absence of restrictions. On the other hand, true liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the State maintains those rights and opportunities which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them. “The true test of liberty lies in the extent to which the law of the land helps the citizen to develop all that is good in him.”

The positive aspect of liberty includes the right of man to do or enjoy something that is worth enjoying. Laski says, ‘Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.” In brief it means, the enjoyment of certain important rights such as freedom of life, freedom of thought and freedom of worship, etc.

Now-a-days liberty cannot be accepted in the absolute form. Liberty can be accepted in its positive aspect. An individual is allowed to do all those things which do not do any harm to others and which are essential for the development of his personality. So many writers have defined liberty and the most important deinitions are given as ahead:

(i) According to Prof. Seeley, “Liberty is the opposite of over-government.” Prof. Seeley is of the opinion that true liberty lies in the existence of a right type of government. The individual cannot enjoy liberty under absolute rule.

(ii) According to Gettell, ‘Liberty is the positive power of doing and enjoying those things which are worthy of enjoyment and work.”

(iii) According to G.D.H. Cole, “No external restrictions should be imposed on those functions of the individual which are essential for the development of his personality.” He further says, ‘Liberty is the freedom of the individual to express without external hindrance of his personality.”

(iv) According to McKechnie, “Freedom is not the absence of all restraints, but rather the substitution of rational ones for the irrational.”

(v) According to T.H. Green, “Freedom consists in a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying.”

(vi) According to Laski, “I mean by liberty the absence of restraints upon the existence of those social conditions which in modern civilisation are the necessary guarantees of individual happiness.” Laski further says, “By liberty is meant the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.”

On the basis of above given definitions we can say that liberty does not mean absence of all restrictions because unrestrained or unrestricted liberty cannot be given to anybody in society. It means that no unjust restrictions be imposed on the liberty of the individual because they hamper the growth of individual’s personality.

Liberty means power to do anything that does not injure others. It does not mean licence. Some restraints are ‘ necessary for the healthy social life and liberty implies freedom of thought and action within those restraints which are necessary for the larger good of society.

There should be no undue restraints on the individual’s freedom of action. Normally the State should – allow its citizens to five freely, have freedom of speech and expression, of thought, freedom of worship, etc.
From liberty we understand the following things:

• Liberty does not mean absence of all restrictions.
• Liberty means absence of unjust and tyrannical restrictions.
• Liberty means legal, moral and resonable restrictions on the functions of man.
• Liberty is an essential condition for the development of individual personality.
• Liberty means the rights of the individual to do things-which are not harmful to others.
• All the individuals are entitled to liberty equally.

Question 2.
Discuss the kinds of Liberty.
Answer:
The term ‘Liberty’ conveys a wide range of ideas, and one can speak of different types of liberty. R.M. Maclver observes in his The Modem State (1950): ‘Liberty itself is not one but manifold. There are many forms of liberty: liberty of thought and of its expression, liberty of action in hundred external spheres, civil liberty, economic liberty and so forth, each of these again having many divisions, such as in the economic field, the liberties of contract and of competition.” To have a clear idea of liberty as understood in various capacities, it is necessary to examine the different types of liberty.

1. Natural Liberty:
As generally understood, natural liberty implies complete freedom for a man to do what he pleases. It is another name for the liberty of the woods that is also known by the name of licence. Natural liberty existed in the State of Nature which existed before the birth of Society. Contractualists like Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau speak in terms of a State of Nature in which there were no restraints. In his social contract theory, Rousseau stated that man enjoyed true liberty only in the State of Nature.

Some other writers also hold that natural liberty is the liberty that existed in the State of Nature. But it must be remembered that the State of Nature was pre-social and pre-political and it is difficult to visualise liberty that existed in the pre-social period of history. It must be governed by the law of the jungle and liberty must have implied “Might is Right” Prof. Gettell has rightly said: “In a State of Nature, each person would possess natural might, but not natural right.”

But natural liberty is no liberty. If every one is in the State of Nature begins to act as he wishes; there will be confusion and chaos. The strong alone will enjoy certain things and the weak will perish. Liberty of this unrestricted character is, therefore, not possible in the society. Thus with the emergence of society and state, and with the rise of several restraints, natural liberty had to end. Liberty can be enjoyed only in a society.

2. Moral Liberty:
Moral Liberty is of great importance in the life of an individual. Moral liberty means freedom to do things according to the dictates of one’s conscience. The ideas of Green, Kant and Bosanquet have supported the idea of Moral Liberty. Moral liberty is not at all concerned with the State. It is concerned with the individual’s own self.

3. Civil Liberty:
Civil liberty is the liberty which a man enjoys in a State or civil society and it consists of the rights and privileges which the State creates and protects for its subjects. It implies the right of each to do as he chooses within the limits set down by law. It may involve protection from interference at the hands of the government.

Civil liberty in the main, consists of freeedom of conscience and belief, freedom of, opinion, freedom of action, freedom of movement and equality in the eye of the law. Lord Bryce says that “Civil liberty has a positive as well as a negative side. It imparts activity, it implies the spontaneous exercise of the powers of willing and doing.” Civil liberty is of immense value to the individual and association in a State.

4. Economic Liberty:
Another sphere in which liberty is demanded and its importance increasingly recognised is the economic sphere. In fact, without economic liberty there can be no political nor true civil liberty.

Economic liberty means security of one’s daily bread and reasonable opportunities for earning it. The individual must be made free from the constant fear of ’unemployment and insufficiency and must be safeguarded against the wants of tomorrow.

Economic liberty consists in the individual’s right to work and to a minimum wage, the right to leisure by the regulation of hours of work in fields, factories and mines, the right to form unions and the right to provision against old age, sickness, unemployment, accidents and also maternity benefits. Democracy can be real only if it rests on economic as well as political liberty.

5. Political Liberty:
Political liberty is considered synonymous with democracy. By political liberty is meant the right of the people to share in the administration of the State. It consists of

• the right to vote
• right to be elected to various legislative bodies in the State
• the right to hold political office and
• the right to make constructive criticism of the government policy. Political liberty thus can exist in democracies.

6. National Liberty:
The term liberty is applied to nations as well as to individuals. A nation or people is said to be free when it has a government of its own choice and when it is not subject to any foreign control.
National liberty exists where the State is a National State, that is, where the community is independent and sovereign. The individual can have little liberty, civil, political or economic unless there is national liberty. India attained national liberty in 1947. In the recent past Bangla Desh attained national liberty with the help of Indian forces. National liberty is more important than all other types of liberty.

7. International Liberty:
The ideal of international liberty covers the world as a whole. It implies renunciation of war, limitation on the production of armaments, abandoment of the use of force and peaceful settlement of disputes. It also desires adequate curbs on the strength of military force so that it may not crush the liberties of the local people or of the people of any other country.

Question 3.
Describe the main safeguards for the maintenance of Liberty.
Or
‘Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.’ In the light of this statement discuss the main safeguards of liberty.
Answer:
Liberty has its importance for every individual. It is regarded as very precious by all people of the world. If the citizens do not enjoy any liberty, they will not be able to develop their faculties. If their actions, movements and speeches are interferred with at every step by a tyrannical authority, life is not worth-living.

Hence many attempts have been made in every country to safeguard the liberty of the individual citizens. Liberty cannot exist under a dictatorship. If the citizens have full liberty of speech and action, the dictator will soon find that his will or power will be questioned and opposed by the enlightened conscience of the citizens. Hence dictators have been forced to curtail the liberty of the subjects in order to retain their power. There was no liberty in Nazi Germany. Liberty will be secured only in a democracy where the sovereign power resides in the masses.

Generally, following safeguards are included in constitution for the protection of liberty:
1. Democracy:
In democracy the people can share the character of the Government as they like because political power lies in their hands. The people are masters of Government. They enjoy full opportunity for safeguarding their rights and liberties. Democracy is a Government of the people, by the people and for the people.

The Government is run according to the wishes of the people and nothing can be done which is against public interest. In no other form of Government the people can enjoy this much liberty. Democracy and liberty are very closely related to each other, therefore, democratic Government should be established for guarding liberty.

2. Declaration of Fundamental Rights:
Another safeguard that is adopted is to include a bill of Fundamental Rights in the constitution. According to this Bill of Rights, the citizens are guaranteed the enjoyment of their rights, free from all interference. In the modern age the constitutions are generally written and rigid and if there is a declaration of fundamental rights in the constitutions, it will serve quite a good purpose. Moreover, the Government cannot violate the right so easily. This way liberty is safeguarded by the constitution and the judiciary.

3. Independent Judiciary:
There should be independent, impartial and honest judiciary for safeguarding liberty. For the protection of rights and liberties of the individuals and for equal justice between man and man and between individuals and Government competent and an independent judiciary is a great necessity. Most of the modern States have made their judiciary thoroughly honest and impartial so that liberty for the people may be fully protected.

4. Rule of Law:
This expression means the equality of all persons before law. Law makes no distinction between the rich and the poor, the high and the low. The rule of law is the most vital principle that guarantees full liberty to the individual and prevents the executive from becoming high-handed and unjust. Rule of law means equal justice for all, no one can be tried by special courts, no one can be punished except for a breach of law and no one can plead the orders of superiors as justification for disobeying the law.

5. Equal Rights:
For safeguarding liberty it is quite essential that all the citizens be given equal rights. No individual or a section of people be given special privileges. Everybody should be equal in the eyes of law. Nobody should be discriminated against on the basis of colour, creed, religion and caste. The same law should apply to all the persons, may he be Prime Minister Or an ordinary person.

6. Economic Equality:
Economic condition of an individual essentially influences his political condition. Liberty has no meaning for a poor person. An individual can enjoy political liberty only if he is free from economic worries. As long as there is great economic inequality there can be no liberty for those who are economically depressed. In an economically divided state, it shall only be liberty of the rich or the poor. Though perfect economic equality is not possible yet the idea is that there should be as little economic inequality as possible.

7. Separation of Powers:
The ‘separation of powers’ is also regarded as one of the most important safeguards of liberty. It is held that if the three branches of government in a State legislature, executive and judiciary are separated from one another and one does not interfere with the other, individual liberty is better safeguarded. If one part of government tends to oppress the people, its actions will be checked by other parts. If the executive encroaches upon the liberty of any citizen, he can appeal to the judiciary or the legislature which will check the executive and protect his liberty.

8. Decentralization of Powers:
Prof. Laski says, “The more wide spread the distribution of power in the State, the more decentralized its character, the more likely are men to be jealous for freedom.” Instead of centralization there should be decentralization of powers. This greatly helps in the promotion of individual liberty. Bryce is of the opinion that local self- government institutions should be established for promoting the spirit of individual liberty among the people.

9. Free and Honest Press:
Democracy is considered the most important condition of liberty. But democracy also depends upon certain other conditions for the attainment of its objectives. Free and honest press plays an important role in making democracy a success. In the modem age the people come to know about all the happenings in the world only through newspapers and journals.

If the news published in the newspapers is not impartial and free from pressure then the people cannot remain well informed about the developemnts in their country as in other countries of the world. Laski has very correctly remarked, “A people without reliable news is sooner or later a people without the basis of freedom.”

10. Political Education:
For safeguarding liberty the people should be politically educated. Political education makes people conscious about their rights and liberties. The people who have political education can well understand and discuss the problems of their State. The people who are politically awakened will not tolerate any interference in their liberty.

11. Well-knit Party System:
Well-knit party system is most essential for safeguarding liberty. In England there is neither separation of powers nor a comprehensive bill of rights. There, the organised political parties, in a permanent state of tension, mutually restraining one another, ensure the continuous popular enjoyment of liberty.

The opposition parties keep a strict watch on the working of the government. The sword of criticism must always hang on the head of the government. The mere existence of political parties is not essential rather the parties should be well-organized and should be based on sound and healthy grounds.

12. Eternal Vigilance:
Prof. Laski says, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” The most important safeguard of liberty is enlightened and vigilant public opinion. Individual liberty is best protected when citizens are conscious about their rights and freedom. It is, therefore, said, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and those who are trained to that vigilance become the conscious guardians of liberty.” They must be active and vigilant and be prepared to stand up to defend their rights, if they find they are in danger.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Give the meaning of Liberty.
Answer:
The term liberty has been derived from the Latin word ‘Liber’ which means free or absence of restraints. But in a true sense Liberty does not mean absence of all kinds of restraints. Absence of all restraints is the meaning of negative liberty but true Liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the state maintains those rights and opportunities which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them. The true test of liberty lies in the extent to which the law of the land help the citizen to develop all that is good in him. Liberty includes the right of the men to do or enjoy something that is worth enjoying.

Question 2.
Define the term Liberty.
Answer:
1. According to Laski, “I mean by liberty the absence of restraints upon the existence of those social conditions which in modem civilisation are the necessary guarantees of individial happiness.” Laski further says, “ By liberty is meant the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be then- best selves.”

2. According to T.H. Green, “Freedom consists in a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying.”

3. According to Gettell, “Liberty is the positive power of doing and enjoying those things which are worthy of enjoyment and work.” .

4. According to Mekechnie, “Liberty is not the absence of all restraints, but rather the substitution of rational ones for the irrational.”

Question 3.
Explain four types of Equality.
Answer:
Four types of Equality are as follows:

• Civil Equality: Civil Equality means that every one in the state enjoys the same status in the sphere of private law.
• Social Equality: Social equality means that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of their riches, race, class or caste.
• Political Equality: Politcal equality means that all the citizens should be treated equal in political sphere.
• Economic Equality: Economic equality means that there should be minimum inequaltiy in the society and everyone should have equal opportunities to develop his natural faculties and power.

Question 4.
Explain-the negative and positive aspect of liberty.
Answer:
Liberty is understood in two different ways negative and positive aspects of liberty. The negative aspect of liberty means absolute freedom of the Individual. Absence of the restraints is the meaning of negative liberty. But true liberty does not mean the absence of restrictions.

True liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the state maintains those rights and opportunity which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them. The positive aspect of liberty includes the rights of the man to do or enjoy something that is worth enjoying. In brief it means the enjoyment of certain important rights such as freedom of life, freedom of thought and freedom of worship, etc.

Question 5.
Explain the meaning of Political Liberty.
Answer:
Political Liberty is considered synonymous with democracy. By political liberty is meant the right of the people to share in the administration of the State. According to Barker, “If a man is free to advocate his thoughts, and to associate himself with others for their common advocacy, he must be free to advocate personal thoughts of his own about the affairs to the Commonwealth and not only so, but also to form or join political parties by which such or similar thoughts are generally advocated.”

It consists of 1. the right to vote, 2. the right to be elected to various legislative bodies in State 3. the right to hold political office and 4. the right to make constructive criticism of the government policy. Political liberty thus can exist in democracies.

Question 6.
Describe any two pre-conditions which are essenstial for an individual to enjoy liberty. *
Answer:
1. Independent Judiciary. There should be independent impartial and honest judiciary for safeguarding liberty. For the protection of rights and liberties of the individuals and for equal justice between man and man, between individuals and government, a competent and an independent judiciary is a great necessity.

2. Rule of Law. The rule of law is the most vital principle that guarantees full liberty to the individual and prevents the executive from becoming high handed and unjust. Rule of law means equal justice for all, no one can be tried by special courts and no one can be punished except for a breach of law.

Question 7.
What is National Liberty?
Answer:
The term liberty is applied to nations as well as to individuals. A nation or people is said to be free when it has a government of its own choice and when it is not subject to any foreign control.
National liberty exist where the State is a National State, that is, where the community is independent and sovereign. The individual can have little liberty, civil, political or economic unless there is national liberty. India attained national liberty in 1947. In the recent past Bangla Desh attained national liberty with the help of Indian forces. National liberty is more important than all other types of liberty.

Question 8.
Political liberty in the absence of Economic equality is meaningless. Explain.
Answer:
According to Laski, “ Political liberty, in the absence of economic equality is held to be a mere myth.” A multi-millionaire and a street beggar, in a formal sense, have the same political rights. But political rights are useless for a starving man. Right use of vote by a poor man is impossible. The poor man may sell his vote to a rich candidate. A poor man cannot afford to spend money on contesting an election. Moreover, political parties are controlled by the rich because the rich people finance the political parties. Press and platform are also under control of the rich. Thus in the absence of economic equality political power tends to become the handmaid of economic power.

Question 9.
Is liberty absolute? Explain.
Answer:
Supporters of negative liberty believe that liberty is absolute and unrestricted. But in practice liberty can never be absolute and unrestricted. True liberty does not mean the absence of restrictions. It is not possible for all persons in society and state to enjoy liberty in the absolute sense. Absolute and unrestricted liberty would mean ‘might is right’ and there will be the law of the jungle.

The utmost freedom of action that each and every individual can enjoy upon like terms at the same time is to be completely unrestrained in his actions in so far as they do not interfere with the like freedom of his fellows. There is not a single country in the world where people enjoy absolute and unrestricted liberty. Thus liberty cannot be absolute and unrestricted. Herbert Spencer rightly observes : “Every man is free to do that which he wills provided he infringes not the equal freedom of any other man.”

Question 10.
“Eternal Vigilance is the price of Liberty”- Laski. Discuss the Statement.
Answer:
Prof. Laski says, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” The most important safeguard of liberty is enlightened and vigilant public opinion. Individual liberty is best protected if the citizens of the State are patriotic and vigilant.

Indolent and indifferent citizens cannot enjoy the fruit of liberty. It is, therefore, said, “ Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and those who are trained to that vigilance become the conscious guardians of liberty.” They must be active and vigilant and be prepared to stand up to defend their rights, if they find they are in danger.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of Liberty.
Answer:
The term liberty has been derived from the Latin word “Liber’ which means free or absence of restraints. But in a true sense Liberty does not mean absence of all kinds of restraints. Absence of all restraints is the meaning of negative liberty but true Liberty exists only when every citizen enjoys the opportunity for self-realization and the state maintains those rights and opportunities which help the citizens to develop all that is best in them.

Question 2.
Define the term Liberty.
Answer:
1. According to Laski, “I mean by liberty the absence of restraints upon the existence of those social conditions which in modern civilisation are the necessary guarantees of individial happiness.” Laski further says, “ By liberty is meant the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.”

2. According to T.H. Green, “Freedom consists in a positive power or capacity of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying.”

Question 3.
Mention various types of liberty.
Answer:

1. Names of four types of liberty are:
2. Natural Liberty,
3. Civil Liberty,
4. Political Liberty and
5. Economic Liberty.

Question 4.
Explain two types of Equality.
Answer:
Four types of Equality are as follows:

1. Civil Equality. Civil Equality means that every one in the state enjoys the same status in the sphere of private law.
2. Social Equality. Social equality means that no distinction is made in the social status of the people on the ground of their riches, race, class or caste.

Question 5.
Explain any two pre-conditions which are essential for an individual to enjoy liberty.
Answer:

• Independent Judiciary. There should be independent impartial and honest judiciary for safeguarding liberty.
• Rule of Law. The rule of law is the most vital principle that guarantees full liberty to the individual and prevents the executive from becoming high handed and unjust.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which language has the English word ‘Liberty* been derived?
Answer:
The word ‘Liberty1 has been derived from the Latin word Tiber’.

Question 2.
What does the negative conception of liberty mean? .
Answer:
It means complete independence or absence of any kind of restriction.

Question 3.
What does the positive concept of liberty mean?
Answer:
Every individual has the right to do all those works which do not harm other individuals.

Question 4.
Write down a definition of liberty.
Answer:
According to Laski,“Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.”

Question 5.
Name supporters of negative aspect of liberty.
Answer:
Locke, Adam Smith, Herbert Spencer and J.S. Mill.

Question 6.
Name supporters of positive aspect of liberty.
Answer:
Kant, Fichte, Green and Laski.

Question 7.
Write down any two kinds of liberty.
Answer:

1. Natural liberty
2. Civil Liberty

Question 8.
What do you mean by Natural Liberty?
Answer:
By Natural liberty we mean that liberty which a man enjoyed in the natural state without the emergence of state.

Question 9.
What is Civil Liberty?
Answer:
Civil liberty is that liberty which an individual enjoys because of being a member of organised society.

Question 10.
What is meant by Political Liberty?
Answer:
Political Liberty means that liberty by which a citizen can participate in the governance of the country.

Question 11.
Tell the meaning of Economic Liberty.
Answer:
Economic Liberty means that people must be free to earn their livelihood and they must have adequate means and facilities for it.

Question 12.
What is an Individual Liberty?
Answer:
An individual liberty means that an individual should be free to do all those works which are limited to him and do not harm other individuals in any way.

Question 13.
What is meant by National Liberty?
Answer:
National liberty means that the state should not be in control of any other country. In other words, the state must have an external freedom and it must have sovereignty

Question 14.
Mention any one feature of Liberty.
Answer:
Liberty means the absence of arbitrary, immoral and unjust restrictions.

Question 15.
Is liberty unlimited? Explain.
Answer:
Liberty is possible amidst laws and restrictions. But it must be devoid of unfair and unjust restrictions. .

Question 16.
Name any two means for the protection of liberty.
Answer:
Establishment of Democracy
Declaration of Fundamental Rights.

Fill in the blanks

1. …………… means power to do any thing that does not injure others.
Answer:
Liberty

2. ………….. is the first condition of liberty.
Answer:
Law

3. Liberty is understood in two different ways and positive aspects of liberty.
Answer:
Negative

4. Liberty is not …………. .
Answer:
Absolute

5. Absence of all restrictions is the meaning of …………… liberty.
Answer:
Negative.

True or False statement

1. The term liberty is derived from the Latin word Tiber’ which means ‘free’.
Answer:
True

2. Real liberty has a positive connotation.
Answer:
True

3. According to T.H. Green, “Liberty is the opposite of over government.”
Answer:
False

4. There is a close relationship between political liberty and economic liberty.
Answer:
True

5. Natural liberty means freedom to do things according to the dictates of one’s conscience.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Liberty of the individual prevails when there is:
(A) No Policeman
(B) No jedge
(C) Democracy
(D) No law.
Answer:
(C) Democracy

Question 2.
Liber means:
(A) Free
(B) No freedom
(C) Limited freedom
(D) None of these.
Answer:
(A) Free

Question 3.
Positive Liberty means:
(A) Liberty to do any thing
(B) Liberty with restraints
(C) Only restraints
(D) None of these.
Answer:
(B) Liberty with restraints

Question 4.
Economic liberty means:
(A) Freedom from illiteracy
(B) Freedom from poverty and want
(C) Freedom from society
(D) Freedom from religion.
Answer:
(B) Freedom from poverty and want

Question 5.
Which one of the following is the safeguard of liberty?
(A) Subordinate judiciary
(B) Centralisation of power
(C) No fundamental Rights
(D) Rule of Law.
Answer:
(D) Rule of Law.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Political Science Book Solutions Chapter 5 Law-Meaning, Sources and Kinds Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

PSEB Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 5 Law-Meaning, Sources and Kinds

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Define Law and give its sources.
Answer:
The State maintains peace and order in Society and regulates the mutual relations among the people. This function is performed through laws. The will of the State is expressed through laws. The State determines the relationship of the individual with the State, relationship of the individual with other associations and the relationship of individuals among themselves through laws. This way the individual has a very close relationship with the laws of the State.

Definition Of Law:
Different writers have defined law differently. The scientists define ‘law’ as the relation of cause and effect. The meaning of law is altogether different in the science of morality. So when we talk of Law of Morality, it means that body of rules which governs the moral conduct of man, being based on the general conscience of the people.

The word ‘Law’ has been derived from the Teutonic word lag which means definite. Therefore, the word law’ is used for a fixed rule. Rules are definite and certain only when they are enforced-by the State. For the maintenance of peace and order in society it is essential that only those rules and regulations should be applied which are recognized by law. Disputes can be decided only by the application of definite rules and regulations.

The following are some of the most important definitions of law given by different writers:
1. According to Aristotle, “True law is right reason, comfortable to nature, universal and external.”

2. The famous British Jurist John Austin says, “Law is a command given by a superior to an inferior.” Austin has further said, “Law is the command of a Sovereign.” Sovereign is superior to all in the State, therefore he issues orders to all other people in the State.

3. According to Willoughby, “Laws are those rules of conduct that control courts of justice in the exercise of their jurisdiction. As distinguished from all other rules of conduct that obtain more or less general recognition in a community of men; they are such as have for their ultimate enforcement the entire power of the State.”

4. According to Woodrow Wilson, “Law is that portion of the established thought and habit, which has gained distinct and normal recognition in the shape of uniform rules backed by the authority and power of Government.”

5. According to T.E. Holland, “Law is a general rule of action, taking cognizance only of external acts, enforced by a determinate authority, which authority is human and among human authorities is that which is paramount in a political society, or, briefly a law is a general rule of external action enforced by a sovereign political authority.”

Of all the definitions of law given above, the definition given by Prof. Holland is the best. In simple words we can say that the rules and regulations framed by the State concerning the external actions of man are called laws.
The law has the following characteristics:

1. A law is concerned with the external actions of the people.
2. A law is enforced by the supreme authority of the State.
3. A law is definite and is applicable to all.
4. The violation of law is a crime and the culprits are punished.
5. Laws are Universal and no discrimination is made by law. Everybody is equal before law.
6. Aim of law is welfare of the whole society.

Sources of Law:
Laws are those rules and regulations which are concerned with the external actions of the people and are habitually obeyed by them. Now the question arises which the sources of law are. John Austin is of the option that a law is a command of the Sovereign. From this thing we can understand that the Sovereign is the source of law but the fact is that there are laws which are not framed by the Sovereign but are only recognized by him.

In the formal sense the State is the main source of all laws. But the modern law has passed through many stages of development and various factors have contributed to its growth. All such factors may be defined as the sources from which law is derived. The following are the sources of law:

1. Customs:
Custom is the earlier source of law. When the State had not come into existence in its present form, the people were guided in their social relations by custom. Even now the courts recognize the force of custom prevailing in a particular comipunity. Custom was the king in the past. A custom is a body of rules universally accepted and followed by the members of the society due to their social utility. In the ancient society when there was no definite law, all the disputes were settled according to the customs and traditions prevailing in the society.

Customs were based on the general usages and practices of the family, class or tribe. But it must be remembered that these rules of conduct based upon customs are not themselves laws but they become laws when recognized by the definite political authority of the State due to their social benefit.

The common law in England is a collection of the customs and traditions of that country. There is great utility of giving recognition to and making laws of customs and traditions. First, the people readily obey such laws and secondly, the state is not to ponder more on the subject of making laws.

2. Religion:
Great seers and prophets in their sayings and writings have prescribed certain rules of conduct for their followers. In most of the states in medieval times, these religious injunctions of prophets formed an important part of law. In the ancient society all rules of conduct had a religious sanction behind them.

It is a historical fact that under the administration of Priest Kings, there was a close relation between law and religion. Moreover, the sacred books (like Quran of Muslims and Vedas of Hindus) have laid down their particular rules for the guidance of their communities. The people follow the laws of religion because of their belief in Divine origin of laws and because of the Godly punishment in the next world.

It can further be proved by the fact that in India still the Hindu and the Mohamedan laws which are enforced by the courts, are based upon religious principles of both the communities. Moreover the laws of Hindus and Muslims in the matters of inheritance, marriage and succession are also based on religion.

3. Judicial Decisions:
Many laws are framed by the judges. Judges while interpreting and applying law in a particular case may modify the provisions of law considerably by their interpretations. Such judicial decisions of eminent judges become precedents and the other courts generally follow them as rigidly as the laws passed by the legislature.

A judge has to interpret laws and apply them to particular cases. Sometimes a law is not clear. The judge gives his own interpretation and in the light of that interpretation decides the case. In this way judges expand or modify laws. The rulings of the Supreme Court, High Courts, etc., are often quoted by lawyers with effect and authority.

In this process they sometimes extend the meaning of a legal provision or modify it according to the growing requirements of the community. It can be further emphasized by the fact that the American constitution is not what the fathers of constitution made it but what the judges of the Supreme Court make it by their own interpretations.

4. Equity:
When there is no definite law according to the provisions of which a particular case may be decided, the judges follow the doctrine of equity or good conscience, and thus create new law. Equity means justice. Judges often decide a case guided by their sense of justice.

They may point out that a certain provision of an existing law is inequitable in character. In this way they help to amend that law according to the principles of equity. This is also a kind of judge-made law. Accordingly the courts in India are directed to apply the doctrine of justice, equity and good conscience in deciding such cases where the existing fixed laws cannot be applied.

5. Scientific Commentaries:
The jurists discuss the different laws and customs, find out their proper interpretation and suggest suitable modifications. In every country the legal writers attain a great importance due to their knowledge on the subject of law. The opinions of these commentators are not at all final conclusions but are only arguments for the elucidation of vague laws.

Moreover, the legal writers by collecting, analysing, comparing and logically arranging the legal principles of law, lay down certain definite guiding conclusions for the particular cases of future. It means that the legal writers interpret the existing law, find out the omissions, remove the vagueness and draw general laws to govern particular cases.

6. Legislature:
This is the most important and prolific source of law. In modem times the legislature of a country composed of the representatives of the people, makes and passes laws for the general welfare of the community. Legislature is at present the most important and direct source of law. Every state has a legislature whose business is to make laws according to the needs of the citizens.

In a despotic state, it is the will of the ruler which makes the law. In a democratic stagte, however the law embodies the wishes of the people through the decision of a majority of the popularly elected legislature. Law so made can be regarded as the true expression of public opinion.

7. Executive:
Nowadays the function of making laws is generally performed by the legislature but under certain circumstances this function is to be performed by the executive also. If the legislature stands adjourned or dissolved then the President in the Union and the Governor in the State, in India, can issue ordinances which have the force of law. These ordinances do not continue to exist permananetly but so long as they do they continue to be force of law.

8. Public Opinion:
Some thinkers are of the opinion that public opinion should also be considered as a source of law. In the modem age of democracy public opinion greatly influences the making of laws in the State. In the modem age the people are considered as the source of sovereign power of the State and laws which are framed keeping in view public opinion are readily and easily obeyed by the people.

In Switzlerland where direct democracy exists in one form or the other, this source of law has a greater role to play. There we find the greater influence exerted by public greater role to play. There we find the greater influence exerted by public opinion in case of the system of Landsgeminde, Referendum and Initiative.

Conclusion: Thus there is not only one source of law but there are many sources of laws. Each source of law has its importance keeping in with the times.

Question 2.
Define the term ‘Law’. Discuss the various kinds of law.
Answer:
Definition of Law:
Different writers have defined law differently. The scientists define ‘law’ as the relation of cause and effect. The meaning of law is altogether different in the science of morality. So when we talk of Law of Morality, it means that body of rules which governs the moral conduct of man, being based on the general conscience of the people.

The word ‘Law’ has been derived from the Teutonic word lag which means definite. Therefore, the word law’ is used for a fixed rule. Rules are definite and certain only when they are enforced-by the State. For the maintenance of peace and order in society it is essential that only those rules and regulations should be applied which are recognized by law. Disputes can be decided only by the application of definite rules and regulations.

The following are some of the most important definitions of law given by different writers:
1. According to Aristotle, “True law is right reason, comfortable to nature, universal and external.”

2. The famous British Jurist John Austin says, “Law is a command given by a superior to an inferior.” Austin has further said, “Law is the command of a Sovereign.” Sovereign is superior to all in the State, therefore he issues orders to all other people in the State.

3. According to Willoughby, “Laws are those rules of conduct that control courts of justice in the exercise of their jurisdiction. As distinguished from all other rules of conduct that obtain more or less general recognition in a community of men; they are such as have for their ultimate enforcement the entire power of the State.”

4. According to Woodrow Wilson, “Law is that portion of the established thought and habit, which has gained distinct and normal recognition in the shape of uniform rules backed by the authority and power of Government.”

5. According to T.E. Holland, “Law is a general rule of action, taking cognizance only of external acts, enforced by a determinate authority, which authority is human and among human authorities is that which is paramount in a political society, or, briefly a law is a general rule of external action enforced by a sovereign political authority.”

Of all the definitions of law given above, the definition given by Prof. Holland is the best. In simple words we can say that the rules and regulations framed by the State concerning the external actions of man are called laws.
The law has the following characteristics:

1. A law is concerned with the external actions of the people.
2. A law is enforced by the supreme authority of the State.
3. A law is definite and is applicable to all.
4. The violation of law is a crime and the culprits are punished.
5. Laws are Universal and no discrimination is made by law. Everybody is equal before law.
6. Aim of law is welfare of the whole society.

Sources of Law:
Laws are those rules and regulations which are concerned with the external actions of the people and are habitually obeyed by them. Now the question arises which the sources of law are. John Austin is of the option that a law is a command of the Sovereign. From this thing we can understand that the Sovereign is the source of law but the fact is that there are laws which are not framed by the Sovereign but are only recognized by him.

In the formal sense the State is the main source of all laws. But the modern law has passed through many stages of development and various factors have contributed to its growth. All such factors may be defined as the sources from which law is derived. The following are the sources of law:

1. Customs:
Custom is the earlier source of law. When the State had not come into existence in its present form, the people were guided in their social relations by custom. Even now the courts recognize the force of custom prevailing in a particular comipunity. Custom was the king in the past. A custom is a body of rules universally accepted and followed by the members of the society due to their social utility. In the ancient society when there was no definite law, all the disputes were settled according to the customs and traditions prevailing in the society.

Customs were based on the general usages and practices of the family, class or tribe. But it must be remembered that these rules of conduct based upon customs are not themselves laws but they become laws when recognized by the definite political authority of the State due to their social benefit.

The common law in England is a collection of the customs and traditions of that country. There is great utility of giving recognition to and making laws of customs and traditions. First, the people readily obey such laws and secondly, the state is not to ponder more on the subject of making laws.

2. Religion:
Great seers and prophets in their sayings and writings have prescribed certain rules of conduct for their followers. In most of the states in medieval times, these religious injunctions of prophets formed an important part of law. In the ancient society all rules of conduct had a religious sanction behind them.

It is a historical fact that under the administration of Priest Kings, there was a close relation between law and religion. Moreover, the sacred books (like Quran of Muslims and Vedas of Hindus) have laid down their particular rules for the guidance of their communities. The people follow the laws of religion because of their belief in Divine origin of laws and because of the Godly punishment in the next world.

It can further be proved by the fact that in India still the Hindu and the Mohamedan laws which are enforced by the courts, are based upon religious principles of both the communities. Moreover the laws of Hindus and Muslims in the matters of inheritance, marriage and succession are also based on religion.

3. Judicial Decisions:
Many laws are framed by the judges. Judges while interpreting and applying law in a particular case may modify the provisions of law considerably by their interpretations. Such judicial decisions of eminent judges become precedents and the other courts generally follow them as rigidly as the laws passed by the legislature.

A judge has to interpret laws and apply them to particular cases. Sometimes a law is not clear. The judge gives his own interpretation and in the light of that interpretation decides the case. In this way judges expand or modify laws. The rulings of the Supreme Court, High Courts, etc., are often quoted by lawyers with effect and authority.

In this process they sometimes extend the meaning of a legal provision or modify it according to the growing requirements of the community. It can be further emphasized by the fact that the American constitution is not what the fathers of constitution made it but what the judges of the Supreme Court make it by their own interpretations.

4. Equity:
When there is no definite law according to the provisions of which a particular case may be decided, the judges follow the doctrine of equity or good conscience, and thus create new law. Equity means justice. Judges often decide a case guided by their sense of justice. They may point out that a certain provision of an existing law is inequitable in character.

In this way they help to amend that law according to the principles of equity. This is also a kind of judge-made law. Accordingly the courts in India are directed to apply the doctrine of justice, equity and good conscience in deciding such cases where the existing fixed laws cannot be applied.

5. Scientific Commentaries:
The jurists discuss the different laws and customs, find out their proper interpretation and suggest suitable modifications. In every country the legal writers attain a great importance due to their knowledge on the subject of law. The opinions of these commentators are not at all final conclusions but are only arguments for the elucidation of vague laws.

Moreover, the legal writers by collecting, analysing, comparing and logically arranging the legal principles of law, lay down certain definite guiding conclusions for the particular cases of future. It means that the legal writers interpret the existing law, find out the omissions, remove the vagueness and draw general laws to govern particular cases.

6. Legislature:
This is the most important and prolific source of law. In modem times the legislature of a country composed of the representatives of the people, makes and passes laws for the general welfare of the community. Legislature is at present the most important and direct source of law. Every state has a legislature whose business is to make laws according to the needs of the citizens. In a despotic state, it is the will of the ruler which makes the law.

In a democratic stagte, however the law embodies the wishes of the people through the decision of a majority of the popularly elected legislature. Law so made can be regarded as the true expression of public opinion.

7. Executive:
Nowadays the function of making laws is generally performed by the legislature but under certain circumstances this function is to be performed by the executive also. If the legislature stands adjourned or dissolved then the President in the Union and the Governor in the State, in India, can issue ordinances which have the force of law. These ordinances do not continue to exist permananetly but so long as they do they continue to be force of law.

8. Public Opinion:
Some thinkers are of the opinion that public opinion should also be considered as a source of law. In the modem age of democracy public opinion greatly influences the making of laws in the State. In the modem age the people are considered as the source of sovereign power of the State and laws which are framed keeping in view public opinion are readily and easily obeyed by the people.

In Switzlerland where direct democracy exists in one form or the other, this source of law has a greater role to play. There we find the greater influence exerted by public greater role to play. There we find the greater influence exerted by public opinion in case of the system of Landsgeminde, Referendum and Initiative.

Conclusion: Thus there is not only one source of law but there are many sources of laws. Each source of law has its importance keeping in with the times.

Kinds of Laws:
Laws are the outcome of the sovereign power of the State. The will of the State is formulated and expressed through the laws of the State. Many writers have given a classification of law. Prof. Gettell has classified law on the basis of the ruler and the ruled. According to Gettell, laws are of three types Private law, Public law and International law. Prof. Holland does not admit the existence of international law.

According to Holland, laws are of two types-Private Law and Public Law:
He further sub-divided the private law into

• Law of Property and Law of Contract,
• Law of Corporation,
• Law of Personal Relation, and
• Civil Procedure.

Holland sub-divided the public law into:

• Constitutional law,
• Administrative law, and
• Criminal law.

Prof. Maclver has classified law on the basis of its sphere. He first of all classifies law into two types International law and Municipal Law or National Law. Then he divides National Law into Constitutional Law and Ordinary Law. Ordinary law is also of two types Private Law and Public Law. Public law is also of two types General Law and Administrative Law. The following chart makes the classification quite clear.

Laws are also classified on the basis of the source of law, for example, Statutory Law, Common Law, Judge-made Law and Ordinances.
1. International Law: The rules which regulate the relations of civilised states with one another constitute international law.

2. National Law:
National law consists of all laws that govern relations within a State. It is the law enacted by the State and governs rights and duties of citizens towards one another and towards the State.

3. Constitutional Law:
It is the type of law which is embodied in the constitution of a country and as such is supreme law of the land. It gives us the basic structure of the government and leaves details to be worked out by various organs of government and leaves details to be worked out by various organs of government, it is through constitutional law that various organs of government are regulated and relations between State and citizens are established.

4. Ordinary Law:
It is that part of the National Law by which the mutual relations of the individuals are determined. This law is enacted by the legislature in an ordinary way.

5. Private Law: Private law is that law which explains the relationship between the individuals themselves.

6. Public Law: It is that law which is applicable to the individuals and it determines the relations between, the State and the individuals.

7. General Law: It is a law which is equally applicable to the citizens as well as the government officials. It determines and regulates
activities of all individuals.

8. Administrative Law:
According to Dicey, Administrative law means rules which determine:

• the position and liabilities of all State officials,
• the civil rights and liabilities of private individuals in their dealing with officials or representatives of the States.
• the procedure by which these rights and liabilities are enforced. These laws prevail in France and they are quite different from the common law of England.

9. Statutory Law: A law passed by the legislature of a State is known as statutory law.

10. Common Law:
Common law is not framed by the legislature and, therefore, it is not written. The rules which are enforced by the Courts in England and U.S.A. but are based upon customs and not on legislative enactments, are collectively called common laws.

11. Judge-made Law: While interpreting the laws, the judges also expand and develop the laws and this way they make laws.

12. Ordinances:
These are temporary laws issued by the executive for dealing with some extraordinary and emergent situation. It is in fact command of the head of the State issued at intervals when legislature is not in session and the nation is in immediate need of a particular law.

Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand by Law?
Answer:
The word ‘Law’ has been derived from the Teutonic word “lag’ which means definite. Therefore, the word law is used for a fixed rule. Rules are definite and certian only when they are enforced by the State. For the maintenance of peace and order in society it is -essential that only those rules and regulations should be applied which are recognized by law. Disputes can be decided only by the application of definite rules and regulations.

• According to Holland, “A law is a general rule of external human action enforced by a sovereign political authority.”
• According to Green, “Law is that condition of rights and duties which is introduced by the state.” ‘
• The famous British Jurist John Austin says,” Law is a command given by a superior to an inferior.” Austin further said, “ Law is the command of a soverign.”
• According to Aristotle. “True law is right reason, comfortable to nature, universal and external.”

Question 2.
Mention four sources of Law.
Answer:

1. Customs: Custom is the earliest source of law. Even in modem time custom is a important source of law.
2. Religion: In the ancient society religon was the most important source of law. The laws of Hindus and Muslims in the matter of inheritance, marriage and succession are based on religion.
3. Judicial decisions: In modern times many laws are enacted by the judges.
4. Legislature: In modern times ligislature is the most important source of law. Every democratic state has a legislature whose main function is law-making.

Question 3.
Distinguish between Municipal Law and International Law.
Answer:
Municipal Law consists of all laws that govern relations within a state. It is the law enacted by the state and governs rights and duties of citizens towards one another and towards the state. Municipal law is applied by the court of the state.

On the other hand, International law is that body of common rules and principles which determines and regulates the rights and mutual obligations of states and their conduct in their dealings with one another. International law applies to the international organisations such as the United Nations, I.L.O., U.N.E.S.C.O. etc. International law is applied by the International Court of Justice.

Question 4.
What do you understand by Constitutional law?
Answer:
It is the type of law which is embodied in the constitution of a country and as such is supreme law of the land. It gives us the basic structure of the government and leaves details to be worked out by various organs of the government. It is through constitutional law that various organs of government are regulated and relations between State and citizens are established. Constitutional law can be amended by the parliament by following certain procedure.

Question 5.
Describe the four elements of Law.
Answer:

• In the first place, a law is concerned with the external action of the people.
• In the second place law prescribes a set of rights and obligations as between one individual and another and between the individual and the state.
• In the third place, law is a general principle or rule of action. A law is definite and is applicable to all.
• Fourthly, a law is recognised and enforced by the State. The violation of law is a crime and the culprits are punished.

Question 6.
Mention four points of importance of Law.
Answer:

• The will of the state is expressed through law.
• Law maintains peace in the state. Without law there will be complete anarchy in the state.
• Law establishes equality. Everbody is equal before law.
• Law protects the life and property of the citizens.

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What do you understand hy Law?
Answer:
The word ‘Law’ has been derived from the Teutonic word ‘lag’ which means definite. Therefore, the word law is used for a fixed rule. Rules are definite and certian only when they are enforced by the State. .

Question 2.
Define the term laws.
Answer:

1. According to Holland, “A law is a general rule of external human action enforced by a sovereign political authority.”
2. According to Green, “Law is that condition of rights and duties which is introduced by the state.”

Question 3.
Mention two sources of Law.
Answer:

• Customs: Custom is the earliest source of law. Even in modem time custom is a important source of law.
• Religion: In the ancient society religon was the most important source of law. The laws of Hindus and Muslims in the matter of inheritance, marriage and succession are based on religion.

Question 4.
Describe the two elements of Law.
Answer:

• In the first place, a law is concerned with the external action of the people.
• In the second place law prescribes a set of rights and obligations as between one individual and another and between the individual and the state.

One Word to One Sentence Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
From which language has the word ‘Law’ been derived?
Answer:
The English word ‘Law’ has been derived from the Teutonic language word ‘Lag’.

Question 2.
What is the meaning of Law?
Answer:
Law means the fixed rules. Those rules are given the name of Law which are fixed and enforced by the state. If anyone violates these laws, he is punished.

Question 3.
Write any one definition of Law.
Answer:
According to Austin, “Law is a command given by a superior to an inferior.”

Question 4.
Explain Statute Law.
Answer:
Statute Law is that law which is framed by Legislature of the state. This law is made to regulate the mutual behaviour and conduct of the citizens.

Question 5.
Give the most accepted definition of law.
Answer:
According to Holland,“A law is a general rule of external human action enforced by a sovereign political authority.”

Question 6.
What are the main kinds of law?
Answer:
Law is mainly of four kinds

1. International Law
2. National Law
3. Public Law
4. Private Law.

Question 7.
What is the main objective of Law?
Answer:
The main objective of law is to maintain peace in the state.

Question 8.
Describe any one source of law.
Answer:
One of the important sources of law is custom. Most of the laws of the state are based on customs. In India, the Hindu Law and Muslim Law are based on customs of the people.

Question 9.
What is an Administrative Law?
Answer:
An Administrative Law is a part of public law. It regulates relation between state and governmental employees.

Question 10.
What do you mean by an Ordinance?
Answer:
An Ordinance is that law which is enforced by executive, when legislature is not in session, to control a particular situation.

Question 11.
Distinguish between Public and Private Law.
Answer:
A Public Law applies to all those people who live in a country whereas a Private Law is concerned with a particular institution, class or area.

Fill the blanks

1. Rule and regulations framed by the are …………. called law.
Answer:
State

2. Legislature, is a main source of …………. .
Answer:
Law

3. The will of the state is …………. through law.
Answer:
Expressed

4. The word ‘Law has been derived from the …………. word “Lag’ which means definite.
Answer:
Teutonic

5. Rules are definite and certain only when they are enforced by the …………. .
Answer:
State.

True or False statement

1. Law is a not a general rule of action.
Answer:
False

2. A law is’definite and is applicable to all.
Answer:
True

3. The violation of law is not a crime.
Answer:
False

4. Custom is the earliest source of law.
Answer:
True

5. Executive has no role in framing the law.
Answer:
False

Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1.
Laws are made by:
(A) The people
(B) The legislature
(C) The minister
(D) The officers.
Answer:
(B) The legislature

Question 2.
Who said this, “Law is a command given by a superior to an inferior”?
(A) Willoughby
(B) Wilson
(C) Austin
(D) Holland.
Answer:
(C) Austin

Question 3.
Which one of the following is not a source of law?
(A) Political Parties
(B) Customs
(C) Religion
(D) Legislature.
Answer:
(A) Political Parties

Question 4.
The book “The Spirit of Laws” is written by:
(A) Adam Smith
(B) Mountesquieu
(C) Hobbes
(D) Bentham.
Answer:
(B) Mountesquieu

Question 5.
“Where there is no law, there is no liberity,” who said it?
(A) Hobbes
(B) Locke
(C) Rousseau
(D) J.S. Mill
Answer:
(B) Locke

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 11 Social Change Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 11 Social Change

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The nature of social change is ……………..
(a) personal
(b) collective
(c) social
(d) culture
Answer:
(c) social

2. Change in the culture of a particular society is known as
(a) social change
(b) collective change
(c) cultural change
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) cultural change

3. If change comes into the lives of most of the people in society, it is known as ………………
(a) social change
(b) collective change
(c) cultural change
(d) none of these
Answer:
(a) social change

4. The change which comes suddenly to change social system is known as …………..
(a) progress
(b) development
(c) revolution
(d) evolution
Answer:
(c) revolution

5. The change which comes according to our wish and creates fruitful situation is known as …………….
(a) evolution
(b) progress
(c) revolution
(d) development
Answer:
(b) progress

6. When change comes in a definite direction and traits and structure of anything changes, it is known as …………..
(a) evolution
(b) revolution
(c) development
(d) progress
Answer:
(a) evolution

7. Who gave the concept of cultural lag?
(a) Maclver
(b) Ginsberg
(c) Ogburn
(d) Weber
Answer:
(c) Ogburn

8. Give one feature of Revolution.
(a) Sudden result
(b) Symbol of power
(c) Quick change
(d) All of these
Answer:
(a) Sudden result

Fill in the Blanks:

1. ……………. is law of nature.
Answer:
Change

2. The meaning of ………………. is sequal change from internal point of view.
Answer:
Evolution

3. ………………. brings sudden and fast change in society.
Answer:
Revolution

4. ……………., ………………… and …………………. are the basic sources of social change.
Answer:
Innovation, discovery, diffusion

5. ……………… is the process in which cultural traits spread from one culture to another.
Answer:
Diffusion

6. When we move towards achieving our desired objectives, it is known as …………….
Answer:
Progress

True/False:

1. Revolution brings sudden change in society.
Answer:
True

2. Cultural traits do not spread with diffusion.
Answer:
False

3. No social change comes with innovation.
Answer:
False

4. Increase or decrease in population brings social change.
Answer:
True

5. Revolution is not a type of social change.
Answer:
False

6. Whole of social structure changes with revolution.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
What is social change?
Answer:
The change which comes in social relations is called social change.

Question 2.
Give one reason of social change.
Answer:
Geographical factors such as earthquake, flood can cause social change.

Question 3.
Can we predict about social change?
Answer:
No, we cannot predict about social change.

Question 4.
In how many parts, can we divide the factors of social change?
Answer:
The factors of social change can be divided into two parts—natural and human factors.

Question 5.
What is the nature of Social Change?
Answer:
The nature of social change is social. It means change comes in the most part of society.

Question 6.
What is cultural change?
Answer:
Change in culture of a particular society is called cultural change.

Question 7.
What is evolution?
Answer:
When change comes in a definite direction and even it comes in the traits and structure of an element, it is called evolution.

Question 8.
hat is progress?
Answer:
The changes which come according to our aspirations and always create a fruitful situation, it is called progress.

Question 9.
What is revolution?
Answer:
When a sudden change comes to change present social system, it is called revolution.

Question 10.
What reason of social change is given by Karl Marx?
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, economic reason is the only reason of social change.

Question 11.
Give one feature of revolution.
Answer:
A sudden and quick change comes due to revolution.

Question 12.
What are the factors of social change?
Answer:
Geographical factor, demographic factor, biological factor, technological factor etc.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Give one definition of social change.
Answer:
According to Jones, “Social change is a term used to describe variations or modifications of any aspect of social process, social pattern, social interactions or social organization.

Question 2.
Give two features of social change.
Answer:

• Social change is a universal process because no society is completely static and change is the law of nature.
• No definite prediction can be done about social change because social relations are not definite.

Question 3.
Social change is comparable. How?
Answer:
When we talk about change, we generally compare the present situation with the earlier situation to see what change has taken place. This difference is only visible after comparing the two situations. So we can say that social change is comparable.

Question 4.
What are the factors of social change?
Answer:

• Social change comes due to geographical factors.
• Biological factors also bring social change.
• Demographic factors are one of the reasons for social change.
• Cultural and technological factors also bring change in society.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Meaning of Social Change.
Answer:
Change is the law of nature. With this, we can come to know about differences. Social change is not related with all the changes which come in our society but the meaning of social change is that change that comes in our social system, social institutions, processes, relations, behavior, social structure etc. In this way, social change is related to social life of social individuals.

Question 2.
Characteristics of Social Change.
Answer:

• Social change is universal. It is the need of every society. That’s why this is a continuous process. We cannot find any society in history where change has never come. Change was there in ancient society and is also in modern society.
• Rate of social change is not uniform. Yet social change is universal but its rate is different in different societies.
• We cannot predict definitely about social change because social relations, which exist in society, are not definite.
• Social change is the result of influence of many factors. It cannot come because of one factor because our society is complex in nature.
• Social change is law of nature because we cannot control the natural forces and they bring changes with them.

Question 3.
Social change is unpredictable.
Answer:
It is impossible to predict exactly about social change. Whenever we are giving definite views about solution of any problem then we cannot definitely keep the system of social relations. For example, we can say that caste system or unemployment in India will come to an end. But because of non-static nature of social relations, it is not necessary that our prediction would be right. So we can say that exact prediction is not possible in social change.

Question 4.
Main factors of social change.
Answer:

• Technological factor
• Cultural factor
• Biological factor
• Demographic factor
• Psychological factor
• Educational factor
• Economic factor

Question 5.
Social Evolution.
Answer:
Social Change is one of the types of social change. Word Evolution is an English word that has come out of the Latin word ‘Evoluere’ whose meaning is to expand externally. With the evolutionary change, not only everything increases but knowledge of structural change also comes. In this way evolutionary change is that change in which continuous change comes in a definite direction. It is a process that moves from simplicity to complexity.

Question 6.
Three characteristics of Evolution.
Answer:

• Social evolution is a continuous process in which change comes about continuously.
• With continuity, definite direction is also there in social evolution because it not only comes in size but also comes in structure.
• Social evolution doesn’t have any external pressure because internal features of everything comes out in it.
• Evolutionary change always goes from simplicity to complexity and it comes in definite direction.

Question 7.
Revolution.
Answer:
Revolution is also a type of social change. Through revolution change in society comes in a way that it not only affects the present time but it affects the future also. Actually sometimes situation arises in society that society goes on the way of disorganization. To remove this type of situation, revolutionary change comes in society. This revolutionary change comes at once and very quickly. It is also affected by external forces. At once change comes in revolution with which social structure changes at once.

Question 8.
Three characteristics of Revolution.
Answer:

• In revolution, at once change comes in social system because of which very quick results come out.
• Very quick change comes in both parts of culture, material or non-material, with revolution with which society changes completely.
• Revolution is a conscious process, not an unconscious process in which conscious efforts are being done for a long time and authority of the state changes with this.
• In revolution, old system is generally thrown out of power with peaceful or violent method and a new system is established after this.

Question 9.
Development.
Answer:
Social development is a process in which many things are moving forward towards their larger and bigger size. It means that development is that type of change in which specialization and differentiation are increased and that thing, which is being evaluated by us, always moves towards progress.

Question 10.
Characteristics of Development.
Answer:

• Development is a universal process.
• One thing in development changes from one position to another position.
• Development is a process moving from simplicity to complexity.
• Development comes in all the aspects of life.
• Continuous efforts are always there for development.

Question 11.
Three measurements of Social Development.
Answer:

• When equality in front of the law increases then this is a symbol of development.
• When all the adults of the country will get the right to vote and country becomes democratic then it is the symbol of political development.
• When every male and female of the society will get equal rights then it is the symbol of social development.
• When there will be equal distribution of wealth and money in the society then it is the symbol of economic progress.

Question 12.
Any two changes due to the result of technological factor.
Answer:

• Urbanization. With the development of industries, people living at far-off places started to accumulate at industrial places for employment. Later on, they started to live at those places. Many cities like Tata Nagar, came into being because of this.
• New Methods of Agriculture. New methods of agriculture came into being because of new discoveries and inventions. It has resulted in more production and improvement in the lifestyle of the people.

Question 13.
Technology and Urbanization.
Answer:
Big industries came into being because of technique with which in dustrialization was started in India. Because of industrialization big cities were developed around these industries. In the beginning, people from villages came to these centres and with that small shops and markets were opened to take care of the needs of those people. Then hotels for people, school, business companies were opened, offices came into being. With this, slowly and slowly cities were developed and urbanization was increased. So, in this way technology has played an important role in increasing urbanization.

Question 14.
Effects of technology on the change in condition of women.
Answer:
Technology has also contributed a lot in improving the condition of females. With the increase in technology, education started to spread and females started to get education. After getting education they started to move fory$r4.m economic sector. Now they are going to offices, factories and are earning a lot of money. With the advent of machines, burden of household work over females has reduced. They are doing almost every work with machines. All this has happened because of technology.

Question 15.
Effects of technology on marriage.
Answer:
Marriage was a religious sacrament in ancient times. Because of advent of technology in modem societies, marriage is not a religious sacrament but has taken the form of social contract. Now, base of the marriage is contract and in case of problem this contract can be broken. Now area of selection of marriage has been increased. Person can marry in any caste with his wish. Partners can be separated with divorce. Now females are standing equally with males in economic sector. That is why now marriage is a contract which can be broken at any time.

Question 16.
Demographic factor.
Answer:
Demographic factor puts a lot of effect on social organization, traditions, institutions, customs etc. Increase and decrease of population, change in ratio of male and female affect the social relations. Change in demography becomes an obstacle in economic progress of society and produces many social problems.

Question 17.
Two effects of Demographic factor.
Answer:

• Effects on Economic Life. Demographic factor’has a lot of effect on means of production, ownership of property, economic progress etc. With the increase in population production of agriculture should be increased.
• Effects on Social Life. More population and unemployment create the condition of starvation with which corruption and conflicts are increased in society.

Question 18.
Meaning of Educational factor.
Answer:
The socialization of man can happen due to education and it affects the ideals, views, values etc. Progress of a person depends upon education. It makes the person literate and removes the superstitions of the person. Educational factor is important in bringing change in every aspect of life.

Question 19.
Two effects of Educational factor.
Answer:

• Change in caste system: Illiteracy makes a person useless and humans are bounded in superstitions, traditions etc. Caste system has weakened due to modern education. This education is secular. It gives stress upon values like liberty, equality and fraternity.
• Change in status of women: Condition of women has improved due to educational factor. She has come out of four walls of the house and now is aware about her rights and duties. They are also motivated towards economic self-dependence.

Question 20.
Literal meaning of Education.
Answer:
Education is an English word which has come out of Latin word ‘Educere’ whose meaning is to bring up. Meaning of education is not only related with giving bookish knowledge but to make a future person by making good habits in him. According to Anderson, “Education is the social process by which an individual learns the things necessary to fit him to the life of his society.”

Question 21.
Effects of Education on Family.
Answer:
Educational factor has a great effect on family. With education people start to develop and awareness comes in them. They start to live according to new values. Now they start to do different functions according to their wish and ability with which fiuclear families come into being instead of joint family. Now people have started to move out of the village for jobs in cities. Now people have become individualistic and materialistic. Children have started to get formal education because of which they have started to go to schools, colleges, universities. Now smaller family is known as good for society. Education plays an important role in socialization of child because he spends most of his time in educational institutions.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What do you know about Social Evolution? Write in detail.
Or
Define Evolution.
Or
What is Evolution?
Answer:
Social Evolution is one of the kinds of social change. Evolution is an English word which has come out of Latin word ‘Evolvere’. Evolutionary change is not only development but structural knowledge also increases with this change. In this way evolution is a change which happens in continuous and definite direction. Maclver and Page are of the view, “When there is not only the continuity of change but direction of change, we mean Evolution.”

At another place Maclver has written, “As the purpose of men grew, the social structure within which they are realized, changes in accord with these and that is the meaning of Evolution.” According to Herbert Spencer, “Evolution is the integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of motion during which matter passes from an indefinite incoherent homogeneity to a definite coherent heterogeneity.”

So from these definitions it is clear that social evolution is not the change due to external pressure but is the change due to internal forces. According to Auguste Comte, social evolution passes through three stages and these are:

1. Theological stage, 2. Metaphysical stage, 3. Scientific stage. Morgan was of the view, “Development of civilization and society has happened in same sequence. To understand social evolution we should know about the different stages of development of social institutions, organizations etc.”

Spencer gave four rules of evolution:

1. Social evolution is the physical and cultural form of the rule of developments of universe.
2. Social evolution comes in same way as the other developments of the world.
3. Process of social evolution is very slow.

4. Social evolution means development from earlier situation. Maclver was of the view, “Wherever in the history of society, we can see increasing specialization in different parts of society, we call it social evolution.” In short, we can say that the change which comes due to internal hidden forces is called evolution. In this development is there from earlier situation. On the basis of given explanation of evolution, we can give certain features of evolution and these are given below:

Characteristics or Features:

1. Evolution is related with the change in living beings or with humAnswer: Spencer gave it the name of biological evolution. This development comes in same way in all the societies. For example, Amoeba is an organism whose all the bodily functions are being done only by cell. Human body is the more developed form of organism whose different functions are being done by different parts. The way in which biological development of organism increases, in that same way its nature also becomes complex.

2. Social evolution is a continuous process which always goes on continuously.

3. With continuity, definite direction is also there in the evolutionary change because it not only comes in size but it also comes in structure. This development signals towards definite direction.

4. There is not any type of external pressure on social evolution but its internal traits come out, Many elements exist in changing things. That’s why change in it comes due to these elements.

5. Change in internally existed elements comes with a very slow speed. It is so because we cannot come to know easily about the internally hidden elements. Every changing element has some internal traits.

6. Evolutionary change is from simplicity’to complexity. In earlier times human society was very simple. With the pessage of time, division of labour and specialization were developed in society with which human society became complex in nature. In this way we can say that social evolution is the change from unclarity towards clarity. The way in which after some time of birth, the body parts of child become clear and bigger, in that same way in evolution society becomes complex and clear. This type of change has definite direction and it is so because of internal elements of any thing.

Revolution:

Question 2.
What is Revolution? Write in detail.
Or
What is Revolution? Explain its definitions, characteristics and stages.
Or
Define Revolution. What are its characteristics?
Answer:
Revolution is also a type of social change. With this the society changes in a way that not only present time is affected by this but future is also affected by this. Actually sometimes in society, some conditions occur because of which society starts to move on the way of disorganization. So to remove this type of situation, revolutionary changes come in society. These revolutionary changes come at once and at a great pace and it is affected not only by internal factors but by external factors as well. Change, with revolution, comes at once with which social structure changes very quickly. According to famous sociologist Karl Marx, “Society goes through the results of the process of revolutionary change in different stages. That’s why one social structure takes place of other social structure.”

Society changes collectively with revolution. Society comes out of one condition and enters in other condition with this change. Speed of this type of change is very quick. We can never imagine about what will happen in near future. Our social organization also changes with this. Elements of both advantages and disadvantages are included in revolutionary change. Sometimes, society gets advantage from this change and it starts to do progress, but some times society changes towards the course of disorganization. New social structure takes place in society and nothing can be found of old social structure. This change generally comes due to the wish of the people. According to Maclver, at once and quick change comes in its complete form in society.

Definitions:

1. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Revolution is a rapid change of some magnitude in culture?
2. According to Guy Rochar, “Revolution means a fierce and violent popular uprising whose aim is to overthrow an authority or a regime to modify a situation.”
3. According to Kimball Young, “Revolution is an abrupt shift to new forms of power or authority within a nation state.”
4. According to Crane Brintindtion, “In sociological terms revolution is transvaluation of attitudes and the values towards the existing social structure.”
So on the basis of given definitions we can say that revolution is a change which comes with great speed, very quickly in social structure. Present authority, in revolution, is generally thrown out of power and revolutionaries establish new authority in the state. Revolution can be full of blood-shed. So the use of violence is necessary in it. Whichever power will be obtained with power, that also comes to an end with power.

1. Contingency Results. Revolution is that means in which violence is used. It can take any form like religious, economic or political. Result of this revolution is that social system and structure changes at once. That’s why social revolution is a very important means of change in the social values.

2. Rapid Change. Revolution has one feature and that is that change comes in both aspects of culture, material and non-material, with this. Whatever change comes due to revolution, it comes with the great speed. That’s why society changes in its complete form.

3. Means of Invention. Revolution is a means with which society breaks completely. New classes come into being due to breaking up of system. New rules are
formed to maintain the existence of new classes. In this way many new classes and rules come into existence due to revolution.

4. Symbol of Power. Use of Power is necessary in revolution. Political revolution only depends upon blood-shed and killing of humAnswer: For example, the French Revolution of 1789 and the Russian Revolution of 1917. Violence is used as a method to overthrow the existing authority of the state. Power or Force has a very big hand in the success or failure of revolution. If the power of revolutionaries is more then they will over-throw the authority of the state unless their revolution is suppressed by the state.

5. Revolution is a Conscious Process. Revolution is not an unconscious process but is a conscious process. Conscious efforts are being done in it and the authority of the state is overthrown by revolutionaries. Efforts of revolution start from a long time and at the end they do revolution with full strength. Revolutionaries are aware of the fact that what would be results of their revolution.

6. Revolution is because of Social Dissatisfaction. Revolution is the result of social dissatisfaction. Whenever dissatisfaction starts in society then it moves on slowly and slowly. It takes its speed with the passage of time and when this dissatisfaction goes out of control then it takes the form of revolution. A major portion of society stands against the present authority and this dissatisfaction throws present authority out of power by taking the form of revolution.

7. Establishment of New System. In revolution old system is thrown out of power with violent or non-violent means and new system comes in power. We can see many examples ofthis in the French revolution of 1789, the government of national assembly was made by throwing authority of Louis 16th out of power. In the Russian Revolution of 1917, authority of Czar was thown out of power and the authority of Bolshvic party was established. In this way old system comes to an end and new system takes its place.

Question 3.
Explain the causes of Revolution.
What are the reasons behind Revolution?
Answer:
1. Social Causes. Many social reasons are responsible for revolution. Sociologists are of the view that if the prevailing customs, rituals etc. of society are not good then they can become the reason of revolution. There are some customs and traditions in every society which are totally against the unity and integrity of the society. For example in 19th century in India, Sati Pratha, Child Marriage, No Widow remarriage and in 20th century dowry system, untouchability etc. Sometimes the aim of revolution is to eliminate these customs. In this way some customs of the society produce disorganization in it. Morality of the person comes to an end due to prostitution, gambling, drinking etc. They hardy care about the prevailing values, traditions, customs etc. of the society. In this way the disorganization spreads in the society. When this disorganization crosses its limits then revolution comes in society. In this way there are many social reasons because of which revolution takes place in society.

2. Psychological Causes. Some times psychological causes become the main reasons of revolution. Some times people are unable to fulfil their basic wishes or needs. They try to eliminate these wishes in their mind. But wish has one feature that it cannot be eliminated or it never comes to an end. It remains there in any corner of ’the mind of the person. If any one tries to motivate him then that wish comes out very quickly. In this way these suppressed wishes produce the revolution in society.

Some sociologists are of the view that instincts accumulate within humAnswer: It means all the wishes of humans are unable to fulfil. They accumulate within the minds of humAnswer: With the passage of time they become instincts. In the end these instincts collectively become the reason of revolution. Except this some problems unconsciously come among humans and these problems shows their effect with the passage of time. Every person has some instinct of violence which unconsciously occurs within the minds of humAnswer: When time comes then this violence comes out of person with an explosion. When revolution takes place then people start to do violence. In this way reasons of revolution occur in the unconscious mind of person.

3. Political Causes. If we look at the history, then we will come to know that generally the political reasons were there behind revolutions and specifically these reasons were there against the existing authority of the state. Many times the authority of state becomes so authoritative that they start to work in their own way. They never take care of the wish of the people. They suppresses the wishes of common people. Dissatisfaction arises in common people due to suppression of their wishes. Slowly and slowly this dissatisfaction spreads in the whole society and this dissatisfaction becomes the reason of revolution. In this way sometimes it happens that corruption spreads among government servants. They use their status and post to earn more and more money and never take care of the problems of common people. Dissatisfaction spreads among people against those officers and they try to remove those corrupt officials from their posts. This effort takes place in the form of revolution.

Sometimes government in any country is based on any specific religion and the people of that religion are given special privileges. Because of this thing, dissatisfaction comes among the people of other religions and they start to think about removing this type of government. Their this type of thought takes the form of revolution. With this if government starts to interfere in the customs and traditions of common people then the people go for revolution against the government to save their customs and traditions. The Revolt of 1857 was also based on this type of reasons. Today’s age is of democracy. In democracy, one party is in the power and one is out of power. Whichever party is out of power, it tries to motivate the people to go against the other party and some times this motivation takes the form of revolution.

4. Economic Causes. Sometimes economic reasons are also responsible for revolution. According to Marxist ideology, history of society of humans is the history of class struggle. According to Karl Marx, there are always two types of classes in society. First is capitalist class and the other one is labour class. Capitalist class always exploits the labour class with the help of its money, wealth and political power. Labour class is unable to get a proper meal because of this exploitation. A very big gap or economic difference comes in labour and capitalist class. Capitalist class lives its life with all means of pleasure and labour class hardly gets the meal of two times. He wants to become free from the clutches of this type of life. That’s why slowly and slowly dissatisfaction spreads in the labour class because of which they go for revolution and throw away the capitalist class. In this way economic resources also force the people to go for revolution.

In this way we can see that revolution is a process which comes at once with which the structure and system of society changes at once. Revolution never comes due to one reason but it comes due to many reasons. Generally political causes are responsible for revolution but other reasons also contribute towards it.

Question 4.
What is Social development? Write in detail.
Answer:
Social change has many types like evolution, progress, revolution, development etc. So development is also one of the types of change. All these processes are so much intermixed that it is very difficult to differentiate them. In modern age, development word is used for economic development. Increase in income of person, more use of natural resources, increase in capital, increase in production, increase in industries are some of the concepts which are used for complete development. But we cannot call development only to increase in these concepts. In society traditions, religion, structure, culture are also there. They also develop. If social relations expand then social structure, habits, values ideas etc. also change and develop. Independence of person, income of“group, morality, co-operation also increase. In this way, economic development is accepted as social development and it is easy to see different bases on this base.

According to Botomore, “Refer to the distinction between two types of present day societies, on the one hand, industrial societies, and on the other hand, all the societies of very different types in other respects which are predominantly rural and agricultural and have relatively low level of income.” According to Oxford Dictionary, “In ordinary usage development means a gradual unfolding, a further working out of the details of anything, the grown of what is the germ.” So in sociology the concept development shows that state in which person controls more and more over natural atmosphere with the help of his increasing knowledge and technical knowhow. With this person moves forward in every sector of social life. In other words he becomes better and develops from his earlier life.

Characteristics of Development:

1. Development is a universal process which exists in every society. The process of development is going on in modern soceity. Todays modern society is the result of development of ancient society. Development took place in ancient societies and that is why today’s modern society came in front of us. Society from feudal times to industrial times has reached only because of development.
2. One thing changes from one position to another position in development. This change can be right or wrong. That’s why it has been said that the relation of human development is with the change from one condition to another.
3. Good and bad. both types of senses are there in development. It means that development never comes only in right direction. It can happen in a wrong direction also.
4. Development is the process of moving from simplicity to complexity. If development will take place in any thing then that thing definitely becomes complex from simple. That’s why development is a complex process.
5. In development, all those means should be kept in mind which can help in the process of development.
6. Development never comes only in the economic sector but it comes in all sectors of life like social, political, moral etc.
7. Process of development is that process in which the knowledge of social and gender change is necessary.
8. Efforts of development are always going on.

Measurement of Social Development:

Many sociologists have given many measurements of social development. Their mixed form is given below:

1. When the equality of people increases in front of law then it is the symbol of development.
2. When any movement will start to increase literacy and to decrease illiteracy then it is the measurement of cultural development.
3. When all the. adults of the country will get the right to vote and democracy will be established in a country then it is the indicator of political development.
4. If females are given equal rights and all the persons of the society are given equal rights then it is the indicator of social development.
5. When there will be equal distribution of money and capital in society then it is the indicator of economic development.
6. When every member of the group or community are given the right of expression and right to do any work then it is the indicator of social freedom.
7. When the sense of co-operation and service will increase among people then it is the indicator of social morality.Progress:

Question 5.
What do you know about Progress? Explain its features.
Answer:
Progress on one side is related with material development and on another side it is related with the new ideas of knowledge. Progress is an English word which has come out of Latin word ‘progredior’. It means that to move forward. The word Progress is taken in the relative meaning. When we say that the family is moving forward or progressing then the meaning of this thing can be known at that time when we will come to know that in which direction it is moving. If it is moving from poverty to richness then from this direction we can come to know that this family is progressing. Here one thing should be kept in mind that if we find any one’s downward trend then it is not progress. For example if any rich businessman becomes poor after losing his business then it cannot be called as progress. Its reason is that progress is always related with the achievement of any aim. Whenever we achieve our aims then we can say that we have achieved the progress. In this way the achievement of our aims is known as progress like progress in the educational sector, progress in economic sector etc.

Different sociologists have given different definitions of progress which are given below:

1. According to Groves and Moore, “Progress is movement towards a desired end in terms of accepted values.”
2. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Progress means change for the better and hence implies a value judgement.”
3. According to Park and Burgess, “Any change or adaptation to an existing environment that makes it easier for a person or a group of persons or other organized form of life to live may be said to represent progress.”
4. According to Fairchild, “Movement in the direction of a recognized and desired goal or objective is progress.”
   In this way on the basis of given definitions we can say that progress is the change in desired or approved and accepted direction. We can imagine about this change even before it comes.

Characteristics of Progress:

1. Progress is desired change. Progress is the desired change because whenever we want this change can be brought. Society always progresses with this change. Our desired aim can be any thing in progress and change which comes with progress is always useful. Actually no one wants to damage itself. That’s why this change is for social welfare.

2. Progress is always comparative. Meaning of progress is different in different societies. If any society has got advanatage from the progress then it is not necessary that other society will also get the same advantage from the progress. Actually every society has different desired aims because every society has different needs. Needs of people living in mountainous region are very much different from the needs of people living in plains. That’s why their aims are also different. In this way meaning of progress is used in comparative meaning. Different historical ages, places are defined in a different way.

3. Progress is changeable. Progress is always related with different countries and ages and it never remains same in all the ages. It is so because whatever we think today as a symbol of progress that can be taken as a symbol of downfall in any other country. It means that progress never remains the same. It changes according to the time, age, country, circumstances etc. It is quite possible that any thing which was known as the symbol of progress in ancient times, today it might not have any importance. In this way progress is always changeable and it changes all the times.

4. Progress is concerned with group. Progress is never personal. If some persons, in society, have achieved desired results then this process cannot be called as progress. Actually progress is a concept in which change comes in the life of most of the people. From sociological point of view when the whole group moves forward towards any desired direction then it can be called as progress.

5. More advantages are there in progress. We can see both advantages and disadvantages in progress but there are more advantages. If the quantity of disadvantages is more then it cannot be called as progress.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 10 Social Stratification Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 10 Social Stratification

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What is meant by the stratification of castes?
(a) Division of society in different parts
(b) To unite .society
(c) To divide society
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Division of society in different parts

2. Disadvantage of caste system is …………….
(a) Division of society
(b) Obstacle in the way of social progress
(c) Obstacle in social reform
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

3. Marriage within caste or sub-caste is known as ……………….
(a) Anuloma
(b) Pratiloma
(c) Endogamy
(d) Exogamy
Answer:
(c) Endogamy

4. Caste system is a ………………..
(a) state
(b) social institution
(c) property
(d) government
Answer:
(b) social institution

5. Ancient Indian society was divided into ………….. parts.
(a) four
(b) five
(c) six
(d) seven
Answer:
(a) four

6. What is the function of caste system?
(a) To control behaviour
(b) To give occupation
(c) To provide social security
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

7. What is the impact of class system on society?
(a) Caste system is weakening
(b) Lower caste people are moving upward
(c) One gets a chance to show his individual abilities
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

8. Which of these is not a feature of class system?
(a) Completely achieved
(b) Change in status of groups
(c) Membership based on birth
(d) Openness
Answer:
(c) Membership based on birth

9. What is the difference between caste and class?
(a) Caste is based on birth and class is based on ability
(b) One can change class but not class
(c) Many restrictions are there in caste but not in class
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

10. Which of these-is a feature of class?
(a) Feeling superiority and inferiority
(b) Social mobility
(c) Development of sub-classes
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

11. The system in which individuals get different social status on different bases is known as …………….
(a) Caste system
(b) Class system
(c) Community system
(d) Social system
Answer:
(b) Class system

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 10 Social Stratification

Fill in the Blanks:

1. …………….. is the process of dividing society into different layers.
Answer:
Social Stratification

2. Caste is an ……………… group.
Answer:
endogamous

3. Ghurye gave …………….. features of caste.
Answer:
Six

4. Varna system was based on ………………
Answer:
occupation

5. Caste system is based on …………………
Answer:
birth

6. …………….. explained about capitalist and labour class.
Answer:
karl Marx

7. There were ……………….. major castes in caste system.
Answer:
four

True/False:

1. Caste is an exogamous group.
Answer:
False

2. Ghurye gave six features of caste.
Answer:
True

3. The concept of untouchability came forward due to caste system.
Answer:
True

4. Jyotiba Phule did a lot to bring reforms in caste system.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
Which system has divided our society?
Answer:
Caste system has divided our society.

Question 2.
From which language’s word, the word caste came?
Answer:
Word ‘caste’ has originated from a Portuguese word ‘CASTA’.

Question 3.
Which type of class is caste?
Answer:
Caste is a closed class.

Question 4.
Who were given the highest place in Caste system?
Answer:
Brahmins were given the highest place in caste system.

Question 5.
Which caste was greatly exploited in Caste system?
Answer:
Fourth caste was greatly exploited in caste system.

Question 6.
What is meant by Endogamy?
Answer:
When marriage is done within own caste then it is known as endogamy.

Question 7.
Which type of occupation of an individual is there in caste system?
Answer:
In caste system, occupation of an individual is based on birth. It means one is required to adopt the occupation of his family.

Question 8.
On what, mutual relations in caste system are based?
Answer:
In caste system, mutual relations are based on superiority and inferiority.

Question 9.
What is meant by closed caste system?
Answer:
The class tvhich cannot be changed is known as closed caste system.

Question 10.
What is used to make Kachcha food and Pakka food?
Answer:
Water is used to make Kachcha food and oil is used to make Pakka food. Question 11. How many features of caste system are given by G.S. Ghurye? Answer: G.S. Ghurye has given six features of Caste system.

Question 12.
When was Untouchability Offence Act passed?
Answer:
Untouchability Offence Act was passed in 1955.

Question 13.
When was Civil Rights Protection Act passed?
Answer:
Civil Rights Protection Act was passed in 1976.

Question 14.
When was Hindu Marriage Act passed?
Answer:
Hindu Marriage Act was passed in 1955.

Question 15.
Which thing was restricted in Untouchability Offence Act?
Answer:
It was restricted that no one will be called as untouchable.

Question 16.
How many castes approximately are available in India?
Answer:
Approximately 3,000 castes are available in India.

Question 17.
Which type of marriage is allowed in caste system?
Answer:
Endogamy is allowed in caste system.

Question 18.
In how many parts, ancient Indian society was divided?
Answer:
Ancient Indian society was divided into four parts.

Question 19.
What was the merit of caste system?
Answer:
It has protected Hindu society, has given stability to society and definite occupation to the people.

Question 20.
Which type of change is coming in caste system?
Answer:
Prestige of Brahmins is declining, untouchability remains no more and traditional occupations are coming to an end.

Question 21.
Give main features of caste system.
Answer:
Membership of caste remains for life, segmental division of society is there and one has to adopt his traditional occupation.

Question 22.
What is the demerit of caste system?
Answer:
Lower castes are exploited, untouchability increased and personality of an individual is unable to develop.

Question 23.
How is caste a closed group?
Answer:
Caste is a closed group because one cannot change it even if he has the ability to do so.

Question 24.
How occupation is fixed in caste system?
Answer:
Occupation in caste is traditional. It means one has to adopt the occupation of his family.

Question 25.
Which two laws have helped in the weakening of caste system?
Answer:

• Hindu Marriage Act, 1955.
• Untouchability Offence Act, 1955.

Question 26.
How has industrialization affected the caste system?
Answer:
In industries, people of different castes started to work together with which caste based restrictions came to an end.

Question 27.
Inter-caste Marriage.
Answer:
When people, of two different castes marry each other then it is known as inter-caste marriage.

Question 28.
Is caste system changing?
Answer:
Yes, caste system is changing due to a number of factors like education, industrialisation, urbanisation, laws etc.

Question 29.
Maintenace of Purity of Blood.
Answer:
When one marries within his own caste then it maintains the purity of blood as blood of other castes never mixes with one’s caste.

Question 30.
Endogamy.
Answer:
When an individual does marriage within his own caste or group then it is known as Endogamy.

Question 31.
Is class intermarriageable?
Answer:
Yes, class is intermarriageable. It means endogamous as well as exogamous.

Question 32.
Hierarchy in Caste.
Answer:
There were four castes—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Lower castes. This was the hierarchy in caste.

Question 33.
What is the basis of class?
Answer:
Money, wealth, prestige, education, occupation etc. are the bases of class.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Hierarchy of Castes.
Answer:
Society was divided into four castes and due to this division, there was a definite system of high or low social status in society. This system of division of society into four castes is known as hierarchy of castes.

Question 2.
How is the social status of an individual determined?
Answer:
In caste system, the social status of an individual was determined by the caste in which he was born. But in class system, the social status of an individual is based on his individual ability.

Question 3.
Caste develops the sense of Co-operation.
Answer:
It is a fact that caste develops the sense of co-operation among its members. As members of one particular caste has same occupation, that’s why they work in co-operation with each other.

Question 4.
What is Kachcha food?
Answer:
Kaccha food is that food in whose making, oil or ghee is not used, only water is used. In caste system, it is fixed that from which caste one can take kaccha food and from which caste one can take pakka food.

Question 5.
What is Pakka food?
Answer:
Pakka food is exactly opposite to Kachcha food. Pakka food is that food in whose making ghee or oil is used. It is fixed that from which caste one can take Pakka food.

Question 6.
Modern Education and Caste.
Answer:
Now people are taking modern education which is based on Science and reason. That’s why gradually people come to know about demerits of caste and it leads to removal of caste restrictions from the society.

Question 7.
Social Security in Caste.
Answer:
If any problem comes to an individual then all the members of one caste collectively solve that problem. In this members of each caste get social security from their respective castes.

Question 8.
Membership of caste based on birth.
Answer:
It is a fact that membership of caste is based on birth. One cannot leave the caste in which he is born. At any cost he cannot leave his caste even if he is having the ability to do so.

Question 9.
To maintain purity of blood.
Answer:
Caste is an endogamous group in which one needs to marry in his own caste. It helps in maintaining purity of blood as blood from all the castes never mixes with each other.

Question 10.
Give one definition of caste.
Answer:
According to Martindale and Mona Chesi, “A caste is aggregate of persons whose share of obligations and privileges is fixed by birth, sanctioned and supported by magic and religion.”

Question 11.
Exploitation of lower caste.
Answer:
In caste system, lower castes were exploited by the upper castes. They were misbehaved and were not given any rights. They lived their lives in hell like conditions.

Question 12.
Discuss two changes in the Caste System.
Answer:

• Due to the passing of many Legislations, the discrimination of untouchability is coming to an end.
• Due to the advent of many new occupations, the hierarchical order of the caste system and the superiority of many castes is changing.

Question 13.
Caste as Segmental division of society.
Or
Give the number and name of castes.
Answer:
In caste system, whole of the society was divided into different parts. First part comprised the Brahmins, second part comprised the Kshatriyas, third part was Vaishyas and the fourth part comprised the people of lower castes.

Question 14.
Change in the caste regarding marriage.
Answer:
Now people work with each other and come closer to each other. It led to increase in inter-caste marriages. People started to marry according to their own wish. Child marriage no more prevails, widow marriage is increasing day by day.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Stratification?
Or
Social Stratification.
Answer:
Stratification is a process in which high and low groups have been divided in social structure and their roles and statuses have been determined. Every group has its definite place and all the groups are related with each other with inferiority and superiority relations. English word ‘Strata’ is originated from the Latin word ‘Stratum’ whose meaning is layer. Its meaning is that any specific object has been divided in different layers and these layers have system of superiority and inferiority.

Question 2.
Two characteristics of Social Stratification.
Answer:

• Universal Process : Stratification is a universal process. We cannot find any human society where stratification was hot there.
• Inequality of Status : Every member doesn’t have equal status. Anyone has superior position and anyone has low position.

Question 3.
Main bases of Social Stratification.
Answer:

• Social Stratification can be divided in two parts:
• Biological basis.
• Socio-cultural basis.

Question 4.
What are the Biological bases of Social Stratification?
Answer:

• Sex
• Age
• Race
• Birth

Question 5.
Give the names of Socio-cultural bases of Stratification.
Answer:

• Economic Basis
• Occupational Basis
• Political Basis
• Religious Basis

Question 6.
Age as the base of Social Stratification.
Answer:
Persons have different positions in society on the basis of age like-child, young, elder. Age is the most important factor in India to give a vote, to become adult, to become M.P. or to become President of India.

Question 7.
The educational base of Social Stratification.
Answer:
Literate persons are known as intelligent in the society and illiterate people are known as idiots. Persons who get higher education have more respect in society as compared to others and even are known as the members of higher class. Illiterate people don’t have respect in the society. In this way society has been divided in literate and illiterate persons on educational basis.

Question 8.
What is the result of stratification according to Marx?
Answer:
Marx was of the view that there are two classes in society. First one is the owner of means of production and other class is not the owner of means of production. On the basis of this ownership, owner class gets higher status and non-owner class gets lower status in society. Marx has given the name of capitalist class or Bourgouise to owner class and labourer class or proletariat to non-owner class. Capitalist class always exploits the labourer class and labourer class always struggles with capitalist class to get its rights. This is the result of stratification according to Marx.

Question 9.
Which type of relations are there in different classes?
Answer:
According to Marx, the mutual relations of classes are of inter-dependence and struggle. Capitalist and labourers both depend upon each other for their existence. Labourer class has to sell its labour to earn meal. It sells its labour to capitalist and depends upon capitalist to earn its meal. Capitalist gives the rent of his labour for this capitalist also depends upon labourers because without labourers, he can neither produce any thing nor he can accumulate wealth. But struggle also goes on with dependency because labourer always struggles with capitalist to achieve his rights.

Question 10.
Class Struggle.
Answer:
Karl Marx lias studied two classes in each society. According to him, there exist two classes in each society. One class is the exploitive class and the other class is exploited class. There always exists conflict between them which Marx calls class struggle. Exploitive class is capitalist class which has all the means of production and with the help of which it suppresses the other classes.. Second class is labour class which doesn’t have any means of production. To earn bread and butter, it needs to sell its labour. This class i.e. labour class is always exploited by the first class i.e. the capitalist class because of which struggle is always there between these two groups. This struggle is given the name of class struggle by Karl Marx.

Question 11.
Means of Production.
Answer:
Means of production are those means through which money is earned to live a happy life. A person uses means of production and production talent to produce material things and all these elements colloectively form the production forces. Means of production are owned by the Capitalist with the help of which he produces surplus value and exploits the labour class. Capitalist becomes more rich with these means of production and he uses these means to suppress the labourers.

Question 12.
Meaning of Caste.
Answer:
Hindu social system has one of the important complex and interesting institutions which is known as caste system. Word Caste has been taken from Portuguese word ‘Casta’ whose meaning is birth. Caste is an endogamous group whose membership is based on birth. Occupation is hereditary and traditional, many types of restrictions are there regarding ways of living, eating, relations and marriage. According to Risley, “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from mythical ancestor, human or divine. Professing to follow the name hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”

Question 13.
Give any four characterises of Caste.
Answer:

• Membership of caste is based upon birth.
• Caste is an endogamous group.
• Restrictions on social relations are there in caste.
• Restrictions are there in caste regarding feeding.
• Occupation of a person is hereditary in caste. It means that no one can adopt an occupation of his choice.
• Society is divided in different segments.
• There is a definite hierarchy in caste system.

Question 14.
What is Hierarchy?
Answer:
There was a definite hierarchy in caste system. Society was divided in different segments on the basis of their higher or lower status. Brahmins got the higher status in all parts of India. Kshatriya were coming at second place and third place was of Vaishyas. Fourth and the last place was given to lower castes. Social status of any person in society was determined on the basis of this hierarchy.

Question 15.
Membership based on birth.
Answer:
Membership of any caste is based upon birth. No one can determine his caste according to his- wish. Social status of a person was determined by that caste in which caste that person was born. No one can change his caste even if he has the ability to do so. In this way the person used to get social status according to the caste in which he was born, not on the basis of individual ability.

Question 16.
Which type of restrictions are there in caste regarding food?
Answer:
Some clear rules are there in caste system which tell us that with which caste we can establish relations regarding food or feeding. Whole food has been divided into two parts-Kachcha food and Pakka food. Kachcha food is that food which can be made with the help of water and Pakka food is that food which can be made with the help of oil or ghee. A general rule is that any person never takes kachcha food till that time until it has not been made by the person of his own caste. Brahmins accept Pakka food from any specific caste.

Question 17.
How occupation is fixed in caste?
Answer:
According to the rules of the caste system, all the castes have their traditional, specific and hereditary occupations. Every person has to adopt the occupation of that caste in which he is born even if the other occupations are more profitable. Person had no choice instead of adopting his traditional and hereditary occupations. Main function of the brahmins was to perform religious rites and to give education to people. Function of Kshatriyas was to protect the country and rule over the country. Vaishyas were doing agriculture and business and the function of lower castes was to serve the people of three higher castes. All of them had to adopt traditional occupations.

Question 18.
Describe the functions of caste.
Answer:

• Caste determines the occupation of a person.
• Caste provides social security to a person.
• Caste gives mental security to a person.
• Caste maintains purity of the blood.
• Caste provides political stability to the country.
• Caste saves the technical knowledge.
• Caste determines the rules related to education.

Question 19.
Caste is a closed group.
Or
Is Caste a closed group?
Answer:
Yes, caste is a closed group. Meaning of closed group is that the membership is based on birth. Social Status of a person was determined by that caste in which he was born. Person can neither leave his caste nor can he change his caste. Anyone cannot change his caste even if he has enough ability. Membership of caste was not based upon the ability and wish of the person but was based upon birth. In this way it is a closed group.

Question 20.
Give merits of Caste.
Answer:

• Caste does division of labour.
• Caste maintains the social unity.
• Caste maintains the purity of blood.
• Caste makes the rules of education.
• Caste produces cooperation in society.
• Caste provides mental and social security to the person.

Question 21.
Causes of change in caste.
Or
Why is caste changing?
Answer:

• Socio-religious movements.
• Efforts of Indian government and making of legislations.
• Contribution of Britishers towards change.
• Change in caste due to industrialization.
• Because of the spread of education.
• Because of development in the means of transport and communication.

Question 22.
Is caste changing?
Or
Future of Caste.
Answer:
Yes, caste is changing rapidly. Now importance is given to money instead of caste. The policy of reservation is being adopted in jobs for scheduled castes. Now a person can adopt any occupation. Inter-caste marriages have been started. Many changes have taken place in the rules of feeding. Now elections are fought in the name of caste. In this way after looking at this we can say that the caste is changing.

Question 23.
Demerits of Caste.
Answer:

• Position of women is lower in the caste system.
• Caste system increases untouchability.
• Caste system increases casteism.
• Caste system increases cultural conflict.
• aste system is a hindrance in social unity and social mobility.
• Caste system produces hindrance inefficiency of the person.
• It is against the democratic values of the country.

Question 24.
Meaning of class system.
Answer:
Class is a group of people which are equal to each other and every class has its own status in society. According to this, every member of class has some responsibilities, rights and powers. Class consciousness is the main necessity of class. Person in class thinks about others as higher or lower than him.

Question 25.
Two characteristics of class system.
Answer:

• Class consciousness : Every class is conscious about the fact that its status or prestige is higher than the other class. It means person knows about higher, lower or equal status.
• Restricted social contracts : In class system people like to establish close contacts with the members of their own class and have very limited relations with members of other class.

Question 26.
Bases of Division of Class.
Answer:

• Family and kinship
• Property income and wealth
• Occupation
• Direction of place of living
• Education
• Power
• Religion
• Race
• Caste
• Status symbols.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Explain different bases of social stratification.
Answer:
Stratification, in every society has diffemt features because they are based upon the social values and the important ideologies. That is why the bases of social stratification are also different. Nature of the process of social stratification is different in different societies. It is related with the social values which exist in that society. That is why social stratification has many bases. But we can divide these bases in two parts

1. Biological Basis
2. Socio-Cultural Basis

Now we will explain both of these basis in detail.

1. Biological Basis. Humans, on the base of their Birth, are given higher or lower position in society in biological basis. In simple words, the relation which exists in different humans and groups can be determined on biological basis.
Biological base, in social stratification, is related with the birth of the person. Some times persons get higher or lower status in society on the basis of their birth. Some of the biological bases are given below:

1. Birth. Stratification, in the society, also exists on the basis of the birth. If we look carefully at the ancient Hindu society then we can see that humans were getting higher or lower social status on the basis of their birth. There were mainly 4 castes existing in Hindu society. Persons related with those castes in which they were bom were getting status on the basis of their birth. Persons were not allowed to change their castes even if they had the ability to do so. In this way there was a hierarchy in caste system. So on the basis of this description we can say that humans were not getting social status according to their ability or wish. The main base of social startification in caste system was birth. Humans were getting higher or lower social status on the basis of the birth.

There was no value of personal ability of the person in this. Person’s ability was neither helpful in changing caste nor it was helpful in taking up his social status. Maximum what a person was able to do was that he was free to take his position up only in his caste. But his position was definitely lower from other castes even if he had the higher status in his own caste. Social Status of person in caste stratification is not determined on the basis of his ability but is determined by his birth. Even today we can find this ype of stratified life on the basis of caste in Indian rural societies.

2. Age. After birth, social stratification also exists in society on the basis of age. Famous sociologist Harry M. Johnson has given different stages of human age in his book ‘Sociology’ and these are :

• Childhood stage
• Adolescence stage
• Adult stage
• Old stage

Many other scholars also have given different stages of life of the person. Status of a small child is never higher in any society because a child doesn’t have complete development. The way in which he becomes older his mental level also develops. Maturity also comes in it with the development of mental level. That is why mature persons are also given preference over younger ones. If we look at the Indian government then we can see that most of the people in it are of older age. Minimum age of 35 years is required to become the President of India. If we look at the family system in ancient Indian society then we can see that the control of the family was in the hands of people of more or higher agd. In India minimum age to give vote is 18 years. But many changes were brought in modem society by Indian government. Like age of giving vote is now 18 years instead of 21 years. Today more and more young people are coming in politics like Rahul Gandhi, Naveen Jindal, Omar Abdullah etc.

But the older people are the pillars of politics. They prepare the younger generation to take the responsibility of the country. In this way government has fixed the age of marriage so that the custom of child marriage could be stopped. People of more age has more respect in all the societies. In many tribes a council is made with the people of more age and they take many decisions related to their societies. In Australian tribes, Administrative rights are in the hands of people of more age.

In ancient Indian Society a scheme of Ashramas existed in which age of 100 years was fixed for every person. Age was fixed for every Ashrama. For example age of 1— 25 years was fixed for Brahmcharya ashrma, 26—50 years for Grihastha ashrama, 51—75 years for Vaan-Prashta Ashrama and the age of 75 years till death was fixed for Sanyasa Ashrama. In this way we can see that stratification exists in every society on the basis of age and person gets status in the society on this base. So age is given enough importance in determining responsibility of different status. Any function of more responsibility is neither given to any child nor it is given to any young one. It is definitely with age. That is why age is fixed to become President, Prime Minister or M.P. and even to give vote. It is so because it is believed that mental level and experience increases only with age.

3. Sex. Sex is also the basis of stratification. Difference on the base of sex is of male and female. If we will see the history then earlier societies were divided only on the base of sex. Females were doing household works and males were going out of the house to collect the eatables.

Family is divided in two parts on the basis of authority :

• Patriarchal Family.
• Matriarchal Family.

Both types of families exist on the basis of sex. Father’s authority is very important in Patriarchal family. But family is under the control of mother in matriarchal families. But if we look at the ancient societies then we will see that males have got higher status in society. Functions of males and females are also different. Even in modern societies differntiation still exists on the basis of sex. The government has done a number of efforts to bring females in many sectors. Some states are giving free education to females. But still we can see many differences on this base. In western countries females are considered as equal to male but even till today no female has been able to become the President of U.S.A. Some roles are different naturally in males and females. Like only female can give birth to child. In this way we can say that sex is also a very old base of startification through which status of male and female is determined in society.

Right from the ancient times females were considered as inferior to males becuase of which their social status and functions remained differnt. After independence, many laws were made,in India with the help of which many disabilities of females were removed. Now the girl has the right to take share from the father’s property. But still in many states, females are considered as inferior to males and discrimination is there on the basis of sex. Yet females are doing every type of work these days and are working with males but still discrimination is there on the basis of sex.

4. Race. Race is also one of the biological hases of the process of social startification. Society has been divided in different groups on the basis of race. Mainly three types of races of humans exist and these are :

• Caucasion
• Mangoloid
• Negroid

A system of hierarchy exists in these three classes. White race means Caucasion has got a higher status in society. Yellow race means Mangoloid comes at the middle level and black race means Negroid has got the lowest status in society. In U.S.A., even today, white race is considered as superior to black race. People of white race are sending their children to different schools to study. Even they never marry in each other’s race. Yet some changes have come in this base but still it is one of the bases of social startification. Blacks are discriminated by whites. Even discrimination is there between them while giving certain facilities. White people even discrminate with Asian people because they consider themselves superior to yellow and black people.

2. Socio-Cultural Basis. Stratification, in society, not only exists on biological basis but it also exists on socio-cultural basis. There are many socio-cultural bases which are given ahead

• On the basis of occupation
• Political basis
• Economic basis
• Educational basis
• Religious basis
• On the basis of blood relations.

Now we will explain them in detail.

1. Basis of occupation. Society has been divided in many parts on the basis of occupation. Some occupations in society are considered as very important and some are considered as less important. In the varna scheme, society was stratified on the basis of occupation. Humans were getting the social status according to the occupation which they had adopted. For example if any one was getting education of vedas and adopted the occupation of giving education to the people then he was included in brahmin varna. The wish of adopting occupation was of person himself. According to Kingslay Davis, the achievement of able person for any specific occupation affects the status of that occupation. Some sociologists have considered it as the main base of social startification.

In modern society, person adopts his occupation according to his ability to do work. For example, in modern Indian society, the occupations of Doctor, Professor, Engineer etc. have a better place in society than the occupation of clerk or suprintendent. Those occupations have higher social status in society which are considered as important in controlling the society. In this way society gives them status by checking the abilities, disabilities etc. of different occupations.

Yet the occupations in earlier societies were based upon caste and the status of person was also determined according to caste but in modem societies, occupation is considered more important than the caste. The position of an I.A.S. officer will definitely be higher than the peen. In the same way some officers, Judges, Megistrates etc. don’t have same status even if their occupation is same. In short, stratification in society exists on the basis of different occupations. For example, the occupation of a prostitute will be considered as lower even if she has a lot of money.

2. Political base. Different types of stratification exist in every society on political basis. Stratification, in Indian society, exists on this base. Political system in India, remains important on the basis of family or lineage. India is a democratic country. The main power in it is in the hands of President. Position of Vice-President is lower than that of President. Two types of groups exist in every class.

• Ruling class
• Ruled class or Suppressed Class.

The position of ruling class is higher than that of ruled class. Even in administrative system different officers get social status according to their job. According to famous sociologist Sorokin, “If political organization spreads then political stratification also increases. Complexity also increases in social stratification with political system. If any sudden change comes in political system due to any revolution then political stratification also changes. There are many political parties in India but the status of that political party is higher which rules over the country. In ancient tribal societies, every tribe had one head who takes care in solving the problems of the tribe and was loyal towards the tribe. Administration in the kingdoms was in the hands of kings end they were running the administration according to their wish.”

Politics also exists in family. Father has the highest position in family. Higher place in the administration of country is of President, then is of Vice President, Prime Minister, cabinet ministers, state ministers and deputy ministers. Some leaders in every political party have higher status and some have lower status. Some leaders are of National Level and some are of regional level. Some political parties also are of national level and some are of regional level. Position of that political party will definitely be higher which has political power in its hands. For example, today the status of B.J.P. is definitely higher then that of Congress because it has political power in its hands.

3. Economic base. Famous sociologist Karl Marx has considered economic base the alone base of stratification in society. According to him, two classes always exist in every society.

1. Owners of means of production i.e. capitalist class
2. Those who don’t have means of production i.e. labour class. Position of those persons is higher who own the means of production. Marx has given them the name of capitalist class. On other side labour class is there which works under the control of capitalist class. Capitalist class always exploits the labour class. On the basis of wealth, three classes are there in society :

• Higher Class
• Middle Class
• Lower Class

In this way the relations of inferior and superior exist in them. According to Sorokin as base of social stratification, economic elements are moving up and and down. This moving up and down is of two types—progress and downfall of any group in economic sector and the more or less importance of economic element in the process of stratification. Its result comes in the form of going upwards like economic pyramid and spreading after reaching at one level and not to go more high. According to Sorokin, the average income of every society and group is different. This average income of groups keeps on changing in different times with which status of these groups also changes. In this way position always moves higher or lower in socio-economic sector.

Generally having or not having property is the main base of stratification in society. Person with more property will definitely have higher status in society and person with less property will have lower status in society. We can take example of capitalist and labour class in modern society. Society generally is divided in three classes-higher, middle and lower class and these classes are very much conscious about their membership. They never like that any lower class people would enter their class. Every class has many sub-classes because difference of income is always there. One millionaire is also rich and one multi-millionaire is also rich but the position of multi-millionaire is higher than that of millionaire. Because income is the base of this class that is why a person can change his class and membership by increasing his income. If a person can move to higher class with more income then he can also move to lower class in the absence of more income. This type of society is also known as open society.

Relations between economic based classes are quite limited in nature. Many sub classes exist in one class like in capitalists class one is multi millionaire and one is billionaire. Persons are free to achieve higher status in class system which is based on economy. Poor person can achieve middle or higher class by earning more and more money.
In short, modern society is known as industrial society. Hierarchy of high or low exists in society on the basis of having or not having property. In this way it is also one of the important bases of social stratification.

4. On the basis of Education. We can also stratify society on the basis of education. Society can be stratified in two parts on the basis of education i.e.

• Literate Class
• Illiterate Class

Status of literate class is definitely higher than that of illiterate class. Person who gets education, with hard work, gets more respect in society. It is one of the important bases of stratification in modern society. Literate person gets more respect than that of illiterate person. Position of a Professor, who has done Ph.D., is definitely higher than that of a Matric pass person. Status of an engineer, doctor or teacher is higher than that of a peon because they are more literate than a peon. In this way stratification is there in society on the basis of education.

5. Religious base. Society is also stratified on religious base. In ancient Hindu society, brahmins had got the highest place in society according to religious system. It is so because they were getting education of religious vedas and were giving education to others. Shudras had got the lowest position because according to Hindu religious system, they are considered as untouchables. Many religions exist in India. Members of every religion consider themselves superior to the members of other religions. In this way social stratification also exists on the basis of religion. There are many religions in India which consider themselves superior to the other religions. Any religion, whose members are more than the other religion, is definitely considered as higher than that of other religion. We can take example of Hindu religion and Christianity in India.

6. Basis of blood relations. Person also gets higher or lower status in society on the basis of the family in which he is born. For example son of any king is given the status of king when he becomes younger. In., this way sometimes human gets social status on the basis of the family or blood relations. Position of any child who is born in the Gandhi family is definitely higher than that of child of any ordinary people. In this way there are many bases of stratification in society on the basis of which inequality exists in society.

Question 2.
What is Caste System? Explain the features given by G.S. Ghuriye.
Answer:
Caste system is one of the most important social institutions which is coming on from ancient times. It was one of the important bases of social stratification on the basis of which status and role of the person was determined in society. Meaning of caste system. The word ‘caste’ originated from the Portuguese word ‘Casta’ which means Race. It is also closely related with the Latin word ‘Castus’ whose meaning is Pure race. Actually, caste system is based upon birth. The caste in which the person takes birth, he needs to live with that caste only for the whole life. With the birth of the child, his ways of living life are determined. It keeps some restrictions on its members which are necessarily to be obeyed by the person. This caste system was one of the main bases of Indian social system and all the aspects of Hindu social life were affected by this system. Its effect was so powerful that it affected every group and community living in India. Word caste has been taken from the Sanskrit word ‘Jana’ whose meaning is birth. Yet this system prevailed in other societies also but its developed form was available in India.

Definitions of Caste System:

(1) According to Risley, “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from mythical ancestor, human or divine. Professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”

(2) According to Robert Bierstdt, “When a class system is a closed group on one or more than one issue then it is known as caste system.”

(3) According to Blunt, “A caste is an endogamous group or collection of endogamous groups, bearing a common name, membership of which is hereditary, imposing on its members certain restrictions in the matter of social intercourse, either following a common traditional occupation or claiming a common origin and generally regarded as forming a single homogeneous community.”

(4) According to Ketkar, “Caste is a social group having two characteristics :

• Membership is confined to those who are born as members and includes all persons so born.
• The members are forbidden by a social law to marry outside the group.”

G.S. Ghuriye has given features of the caste system which are more acceptable :

• Segmental division of society
• Hierarchy
• Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse
• Civil and religious disabilities and privileges of various castes.
• Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation
• Restrictions on marriage.

Now we will see these features in detail:

1. Segmental division of society : The caste system divides the Hindu society in many parts in which it determines or fixes the status, position and functions of the members of every part. That is why members of any specific group are conscious about their position and because of which they think themselves as unbreakable part of that group. The area of interaction of members of one caste is limited to its own caste because of this division of society in parts. Every caste has its own ways of living, traditions, values etc. Generally members of one caste interact with the members of its own caste. In this way according to Ghuriye one caste is a social unit in which person lives his whole life.

2. Hierarchy : In most of the parts of India, Brahmin varna has got the highest status. We can see a definite hierarchy in caste system in which all castes are kept in a definite hierarchy. In this system the status of highest and lowest caste is definitely determined but there is some unclarity between the middle caste.

3. Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse : There are some definite and detailed rules in caste system which tell us that with which caste a person can keep social relations and with which caste he can keep relations of feeding. Whole food has been divided in two categories of‘Kacha Food’ and ‘Pakka Food’. We need water to cook ‘Kacha Food’ and we need oil to cook Pakka Food. There are a number of restrictions in giving and taking food to different castes.

4. Civil and religious disabilities and privileges of various castes : Different castes have special civil and religious disabilities. In ancient times impure castes were kept out of the limit of the village. There were restrictions on social intercourse with impure castes. They were restricted to go to the temples of higher castes, they were restricted to take water from the wells. They were restricted to read religious books. Children of lower castes were restricted to get education. Higher castes had special privileges over lower castes.

5. Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation : According to the rules of caste system, some castes had traditional occupations. Members of the caste had to adopt the traditional occupation. But some occupations like trade, agriculture, job etc. were free to be done by anyone. But still with that a number of castes had definite occupations like carpenter, blacksmith, potter etc.

6. Restrictions on marriage : Castes were again divided into sub-castes. These sub-castes were restricting their members to marry out of their group. The characteristic of caste is that it is an endogamous group. Person has to marry in his own sub-caste. If any one was breaking this rule then he was generally thrown out of his caste.

Question 3.
Give features of Caste System.
Answer:
1. Membership is based on birth : Membership of caste is based upon birth and no one can fix his caste with his own wish. Person used to get social status according to the caste in which he was born. One cannot change his caste even if he has the ability to do so. Is this way membership of caste is based upon birth and not on the ability of an individual.

2. Restrictions in social relations : In earlier times, whole of the society was divided into different castes and their status was pre-determined. There were a number of restrictions regarding keeping relations with other castes. People of upper castes were keeping relations only with upper castes. They were not allowed to keep relations with lower castes.

3. Restrictions on eatables : Several clear rules are there in caste system which tells that with which caste one has to keep feeding relations or not. Whole of the food was divided into two categories and these were Kachha food and Pakka food. Water was used to make Kachha Food and oil was used to cook Pakka food. There was a general rule that one never eats the Kachha food unless it is made by the member of his own caste or the food must be made by the Brahmin or his Guru. That’s why most of the castes accepted the food given by Brahmins. But Brahmins never accepted Kachha food made by any one of the other caste. Pakka food was accepted only by a specific caste. In this way restriction on feeding was one of the major features of caste system.

4. Restriction on occupation : According to the rules of caste system, castes had their specific traditional occupations. Person had to adopt the occupation of his own caste even if the other occupations were more profitable. Man had no choice except adopting his caste’s occupation. But some occupations were free to be adopted by any one like trade, agriculture, job in military etc. Even many castes were free to adopt any occupation but many castes used to do their traditional functions like carpenter, blacksmith, barber, potter etc. Main function of Brahmins was to give education and to perform religious rites, function of Kshatriya was to protect the country, function of Vaishyas was to do agriculture and trade and lower castes used to serve the higher castes. They had to perform their traditional functions.

5. Restrictions on marriage: Caste system was again divided and different castes were divided into sub-castes. These sub-castes used to restrict their members to marry out of their group. Endogamy is the important feature of caste system. It means to marry in the group. Yet in some specific conditions, there were some relaxations. But generally they had to marry in their own caste. If anyone was breaking this rule then he was generally thrown out of his caste and was restricted to enter any other caste. In this way everyone used to marry in his own caste or sub-caste.

6. Segmental division of society : Hindu society was divided into many parts by caste system and the status, place and function of every part were determined by it. That is why members had some consciousness of being members of a group and used to think themselves as the unavoidable and unbreakable part of the group. Because of this segmental division of society the area of interaction for a person was generally restricted to his own caste. Panchayats were free to give punishment to the person who will break the rules of caste. Different castes had different traditions and way of living. People of one caste were generally interacting with the persons of their own caste.

7. Endogamy : There were strict restrictions related to marriage. Man was not allowed to marry out of his caste but he had to marry in his own sub-caste. If anyone was breaking this rule then he was generally thrown out of his caste. Anulom marriage was also allowed to a certain extent. That is why boy of higher caste used to marry girl of lower caste. So endogamy was the main base of caste system.

Question 4.
Explain the functions of caste system.
Answer:
1. To control individual’s behaviour: Rules of the caste system were forcing the person to live acoording to the rules made by society. Caste used to tell the person about his behaviour of occupation, restrictions of feeding, social intercourse and marriage and man was working according to them.

2. To provide social security : Caste provides social security to all its members. Members of a caste were ready to give help .to the* other members of their caste from any aspect. Whenever person was in great problem, caste always comes forward for his help. In this way all the members of caste were joining their hands at the time of problem. At every moment they were ready to give help to each other.

3. To provide occupation : Occupation of a person, in caste System was pre-determined even at the time of his birth. Different castes had different functions like function of Brahmin was to give education, function of Kshatriya was to protect the society, function of Vaishya was to do business and the function of lower castes was to serve higher castes. People believed in Karma theory that person will take next birth according to the deeds of his birth and he will get functions according to that. In this way every person had to adopt his traditional occupation.

4. Functions related to Marriage : Rule of Endogamy exists in caste system. Person has to marry in the same caste in which he is born. Caste puts certain restrictions on its members to marry in the caste only and if he tries to break the rule then he is thrown out of the caste.

5. To provide Mental Security: Persons don’t have any individual responsibility in the caste system because whatever caste is determined for him he has to accept that. The person used to get status according to his caste in which he was born. There was no mental pressure on him of occupation or marriage. In this way he was getting mental security from the caste.

6. It develops the feeling of co-operation : Members of the caste were always ready of give help to each other. Every person obeyed the rules made by caste. Rule breaker was thrown out of caste. In this way all the members of caste lived with each other with which stability was maintained in caste.

7. Educational Function : Caste always tried to tell about the rules related to education of its members. Education was confined only to the people of higher castes. Only Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were allowed to take education.

8. Preservation of culture : Every caste has its own culture. Members of caste preserve their culture from generation to generation. Every caste has its own rules and traditions of eating, living, marriage, education etc. Children adopt these traditions from their parents. In this way it is an important function of caste system to preserve the culture of the caste.

9. Maintenance of the Purity of blood : Rule of endogamy exists in caste system. According to this rule man has to marry in the same caste in which he is born. On the basis of this rule members of higher castes marry in higher caste and members of lower castes marry among lower castes. In this way this rule maintains the purity of blood.

10. Security of Religious customs : Religious customs are also related with i ;aste. Every caste has’its own different religious customs. It is necessary to perform religious customs among Brahmins. So caste system helps in securing religious functions of caste.

Question 5.
What are the merits and demerits of caste system?
Answer:
Merits or Advantages of Caste System:

1. It gives Social Security. The biggest advantage of caste is that it provides social security to all its members. Members of one caste are always ready to give help to other members of the caste. That is why there is no need to worry for anyone because he knows that if any problem comes on him then .his caste will definitely give him help. Caste system determines social status of man and reduces the Impossibility of competition.

2. Fixation of Occupation : Another characteristic of caste system is that it cletermines the occupation or function for the person. This occupation is according t o his family and is transmitted from one generation to another generation. Occupational qualities come automatically in the child of the family. In this way specialization comes in the person without any formal education. Except this it also reduces the competition of occupation in society and provides economic security. but this way it is an important advantage of caste system.

3. Purity of Blood : Caste System is an endogamous group. The meaning of (endogamy is that man has to marry in his own caste and if any one was trying to 1 break this rule then he was forced to leave the caste. Advantage of this thing is that : it stops the blood of other castes to come in their caste and it maintains the purity i af blood. In this way its advantage is that it helps in maintaining purity of blood.

4. Division of Labour : Another important advantage of caste system is that it i produces feeling of love and dedication among humans towards their duties. Humans vvith lower duties were doing their functions properly. Caste system fills one feeling within its members that every person has got his function according to the deeds of 1 lis previous birth and if he will do good deeds in this birth then he will get next birth in higher caste. It reduced the sense of hatred towards their functions and toward others. With this people did their functions properly. Caste system has divided the society in four varnas. Everyone knows about its functions properly. All of them do their functions properly and transmit their trade secrets to their next generations. In this stability is maintained in the society towards their functions and it helps in increasing division of labour and specialisation.

5. To make rules of education : Another important merit of caste system is that it has made definite rules regarding getting education and has made religion as the base of education. Education helps the person in learning self control, knowledge about occupation and to live in discipline. Education also gives knowledge about daily routine and occupation. Caste system determines that who will get education and which rule he has to obey. In this way caste system arranges the education for person according to the social status of his caste.

6. It maintains Social Unity : Another merit of caste system was that it kept the Indian society in unity. Caste system has divided the whole society in four parts and has given different functions to different parts. The way in which everyone has s different functions in division of labour, in that same way caste system has producec t division of labour in society. These different parts do different functions but he each other and fulfill each other’s needs. In this way even after this division, the are tied in the thread of unity.

7. It gives Mental Security : Caste gives mental security to its members. Fron n the rules of caste, every person comes to know that which occupation he has t o adopt, in which group he has to marry and perform religious customs and wit] a which groups he has to establish social relations^In this way when a person is fre e from these burdens then he feels secured himself mentally.

Demerits or Disadvantages of Caste System:

1. Low Status of Women : The main reason of the low status of women is cast e system. Because of controls of caste system, the position of Hindu women was no t more than a maid in the family. Because caste is an endogamous group, that is wh y to find a match for their children in their own caste, they advocated the child marriage;. It has resulted in polygamy. Kuleen Vivaha has also produced many evils in societ; y like polygamy, dowry system. Females used to work only in the house. They had n o rights. In this way the main reason behind all the problems of women was cast e system. Even it had not given the permission of widow remarriage and female wa s a server for the family only.

2. Untouchability: Problem of untouchability came into being because of divisioi i of society by caste system. A big portion of total population was made untouchablt e and they were generally disgraced by the higher castes because their function wan known as non-sacred. Their position was even less than servants. They were restrictec l in many ways. They were not allowed to take part in economic sector. In this way J i large portion of population was just like a burden on society. That is why poverty r came in society. It produced the sense of hatred in society and the problem of casteism came into being.

3. Casteism : With caste system, our thinking has been shrinked. Too much dependence upon caste related to marriage, occupation, social relations etc. increase d the sense of casteism among people. It has increased the sense of prestige and hatred among people. It has increased the social and physical farness among the people. Because of this we have to face the problem of casteism. People only think about their caste.

4. Cultural Conflict : There are many restrictions in the relations of different castes and because of this every caste is a closed group which has its own ways of living. This differentiation has given birth to cultural conflict. Different castes have been divided in different cultural groups. We can see a number of conflicts in these groups. Higher castes think that their culture is superior and that is why they keep themselves away from other castes.

5. It stops Social Mobility : Distribution of status in caste system depends upon birth. No one can change this with his ability. Every member knows that he cannot change or improve his position. This system never motivates to do hard work because person knows that he cannot change his position even with hard work. It is an obstacle in economic progress. People cannot invent anything even if they have ability to do so because people have to adopt their traditional occupation. Many occupations are running at very less pace because of caste system.

6. It stops efficiency among persons : The main reason of people lacking in efficiency is that they are under the control of caste and caste system. All the members of all the castes ard not working by coordinating with each other instead they try to create obstacles in the way of other caste. Their occupation is hereditary and even if they don’t have any ability to do that work, they have to adopt their ancestral occupation. It reduces efficiency in person.

Question 6.
Which changes are coming in Caste System? Write in detail.
Answer:
Many changes are coming in caste system. These changes are not the result of any factor but are the result of many factors like industrialization, urbanization, modem education, development in means of transport, governmental efforts, new laws etc. They have completely changed the caste system and these changes are given below:

1. End to the discrimination and untouchability. In 1955, Indian government passed a law ‘Untouchability Offence Act’ and tried to eradicate untouchability. Now if any one says ‘Untouchable’ to any person of lower caste then he will be considerd as criminal. Government adopted the policy of reservation in government institutions to uplift the lower castes. On the basis of this policy, special provision is kept to give jobs to lower caste people. In modern times person of every caste is doing every type of work. Government gave scholarships to the people of backward classes so that they should be able to get any status in society with some hard work. In this way the discrimination of untouchability has been reduced to a great extent.

2. Change in caste hierarchy. The hierarchy which was determind by the caste system in Indian society, has been changed completely. Lower castes have been uplifted in society by a number of processes like urbanization, industrialization, sanskritization etc. In modem times, no caste considers itself inferior to the other castes. Even people of higher castes are ready to marry in the lower castes. Some want to obtain the facilities given to lower castes by the government and some want to marry in them after looking at their richness. In this way social mobility came into being in Indian society and now we cannont find the hierarchy of castes anywhere.

3. Changes in restrictions of food and drink. In ancient times, feeding of the caste was determined by the caste. Food was divided into two parts and feeding relations of a caste were pre-determned. But in modern times it was very difficult to adopt these restrictions. When people of differnt castes came in contact with each other in cities then these restrictions slowly and slowly came to an end. Cooks in hotels belong to different castes and people eat in hotels by sitting with each other and without asking each other’s caste. In cities people work with each other and that is why they start to eat with each other. In this way a number of changes have come in the feeding restrictions of a caste.

4. Decline in the status of Brahmins. Changes in caste system were started even under the rule of Britishers on Indian society. First of all British government started to behave equally with all the people of different castes. According to them all of them are IndiAnswer: They started to give western education to Indian people instead of religious education. Every one was free to get education in these educational institutions. In this way there was no question of superiority of brahmins because humans started to attain social status according to their ability and not on the basis their caste. Lower castes have taken their status upwards by doing progress in economic sector. After Independence, Indian government tried to remove the superiority of upper castes by making some laws. Now every one can get higher status in society by getting higher education. In this way the importnce of the birth of the person has come to an end. Importance of money has reduced the superiority of upper castes. Now the rich person gets more respect and prestige in society.

5. Freedom in Selection of Occupation. In ancient Indian society, occupation of person was determined right after his birth and it was according to his caste. Person had to adopt the occupation of his caste, even against his wish. He was not allowed to adopt any other occupation except his pre-determined occupation. But because of many reasons, society started to give importance to personal ability. Now humans are free to adopt occupation of their choice. It means that person can select the occupation according to his ability. Even the concept of profit has been tied with this. No occupation is higher or lower in their eyes. Now they adopt that occupation in which they see more profit. In this way the freedom, which a person has got in selection of occupation, has brought changes in caste system.

6. Change in Status of Woman. The status of woman was not good under the influence of caste system. She used to spend her life only by living in the four walls of the house. She was neither free to get education nor she was free to speak on any subject. In this way she had to spend her life in a suppressed way. But in modern times, she has got freedom in all sectors of life and she is now no more under the control of males. Now she is economically self-dependent. Status of females have been completely changed. Now people feel happy in case of birth of a baby girl. Now there is no differnce in boy or girl child. Even government has given reservation to females for their upliftment. Now every female is free to marry anywhere she wants. Even her parents are not interfering in her decisions.

7. Change in the Marriage System. In ancient times, caste system had made many tough rules related to marriage. No one was free to marry out of his sub-caste. But in modern times people have started to work with each other with which they came closer to each other. Inter-caste marriage has got sanctions of society. Now person can marry anywhere with his wish. Second change which came in the sector of marriage is that earlier child marriage was very popular. Widow had to live as a widow for the whole life and she was not allowed to remarry. But government has banned child marriage and has set the age for mariage i.e. 18 years for girl and 21 years for boy. Widow remarriage was also given sanction by society and governments.

Question 7.
Explain different bases of class distribution.
Answer:
There are many bases of class distribution which are given below.

1. Family and Kinship
2. Property, income and money
3. Occupation
4. Location of Residence
5. Education
6. Power
7. Religion
8. Race
9. Caste
10. Status Symbol

1. Family and Kinship : Family and kinship are very important in determining status of class. According to Bierstdt, “As a base of social class, importance of family and kinship is not eqiial in all societies, but it is one of the base out of those bases which can be used as a part of the whole system.” Status given by family goes from generation to generation. For example the children born in the family of Tata, Birla will remain capitalist because their ancestors have earned a lot of money for them and they can live their life happily without doing anything. In this way person will get higher status who is born in a rich family. So in this way person gets higher status in class system due to his family and kinship.

2. Property, income and money: Property, income and money are the important base of class. That is why modern society is known as capitalist society. Money is a source which can take person to higher class in quick succession. Karl Marx has also believed that money is the alone base of class determination. Here more money doesn’t mean that person is rich, the thing which is important is how this money has been earned. Smugglers have a lot of money but their status is very low. Prostitutes also have a lot of money but their way of earning is not good. So the means is also important for determination of class.

3. Occupation : Occupation is also known as the determinant basis of social class. Which type of occupation a person is doing in society, is also related with class system. Some occupations in our class system are very important and some are less important. The social status of Doctor, Engineer, Professor is always higher irrespective of their family status. People give them a lot of respect. Occupation of an illiterate person is always lower in society. In this way occupation is an important determinant in class system. Every person has to do some work in life to live and he does this1 work according to his ability. He gets social status in society according to his occupation. If any one accumulates money with wrong deeds then his position is always low in society. In modern Indian society occupations related to education are of more importance.

4. Location of Residence : Where the person is living, is also a determinant factor of his class. We can see that people are very choosy, about their place of living. Some areas in the city are ‘posh areas’ and some are backward areas. Persons who are living in posh areas have higher status and persons living in backward areas,slums and small colonies are of low status. Labourers, sweepers are generally making their colony in any area. Rich people are living in big and clean houses but poor people are living in slums.

5. Education : Modern society has been divided in two classes on the basis of education:

• Literate Class
• Illiterate Class

Importance of education exists in every society. We can generally see that literate people have more prestige in society irrespective of money. That is why today every person is trying to get education according to his present position. Nature of education is also responsible for the determination of class status. Status of technical persons is higher in industrial societies as compared to a simple person.

6. Power : Because of development of industrialisation and with the advent of democracy, power has also become a base of class structure. More or less power also determines the class of the society. With power, the social, economic and political status is also determined. Power is in the hands of people of higher strata and these can be politicians, military officers, rich people etc. We can take example of Indian Government. Status of Narendra Modi or Arun Jaitley is definitely higher than the position of Sonia Gandhi or Rahul Gandhi because they have power and authority in their hands. In the same way the position of B.J.P. is definitely higher than the Congress because today B.J.P. government is there in centre.

7. Religion : According to Robert Bierstdt, religion is also one of the important factors of social status. Some societies exist in” the world where traditional fundamentalist views have great influence. Status is determined on the basis of higher or major religion. In modem times, where.society is developing very quickly, the importance of religion has been reduced due to industrialization, western education, modernization etc. In ancient Indian society, Brahmins had highest status but today it is not so. Status of Muslims in Pakistan is definitely better than that of Hindus and Christians because Islam is the religion of Pakistan. In this way sometimes, religion also plays an important role in the determination of status of class.

8. Race : Race is also a determinant of class in many societies of the world. White people are considered as of higher class and black people are considered as of lower caste. Asian countries are seen with the sense of hatredness in western countries. We can see racial conflict commonly in these countries.

9. Caste : In Indian Society, where caste system has played an important role from centuries, caste is also an important factor in determining class. Caste is based on birth. You cannot change your caste even if you have the ability. The membership of caste in ancient times was based on one’s birth.

Difference and Interface Between Caste and Class:

Question 8.
Give difference between Caste and Class.
Or
What are the differences between Caste and Class? Write in detail.
Answer:
1. Caste is based on birth but class is based on action : Membership of a person in caste system was based upon birth. Person was related with that caste for the whole life in which he was born. For example, a person, who was born in Kshatriya caste, will remain Kshatriya for the whole life an d he cannot change his membership. Membership of a person in class system is based upon income, education, occupation, ability etc. Person can change his membership according to his wish. A person can relate himself to the higher caste with hard world. Member ship of class is based upon ability. If the person does have ability but he never does any work can go from higher caste to lower caste. But if he does his work then he can change hi.s position from lower caste to higher caste. In this way cash is based upon birth class is based upon action.

2. Occupation of caste is determined but not of class : In caste system occupation was determined by the birth of the person. It means that occupation a were related with different castes. Person had to adopt the occupation of the caste in which he was born. He cannot change his occupation for this whole life. In this way he had to adopt the occupation of his caste even against his wish. Scope of selection of occupation in class system is very wide. It if 5 the wish 0f the person to choose the occupation. He adopts that occupation in which the is expert or which is more profitable. He can change his occupation at any time this way the selection of occupation deponds upon the ability of the person.

3. Membership of caste is ascribed but members! hip of class is e achieved : Status of person in caste system was; related with his cas te. It means status was not achieved by him but was related with his birth. That is why the – word ascribed was used for his status and that is why stability was there in caste system. Status of person was determined by the status; of the family.Status of person in class system is achieved. It means has to achieve his position in society. That is why the person in hard working righ from the start. Person can get higher or lower status in society with his ability. Birth i & of no importance. Person’s ability and hard work are important in changing his position.

4. Caste is a closed system but class is an open syste. Caste system is a close system of stratification because person has to live in its restrictions for the whole life. He can neither change Inis caste nor his occ upatir jn. Class system is an open group of stratification. Person has every type of indej jendence in it. He can move forward in any area with hard work. He gets full ch and to change his position from lower to higher. Class is open for everyone. Person car . become member of any class according to his ability. Perseverance and hard work can change his class many times in his life.

5. There are many restriction in caste system but at in class: Caste system puts various restrictions on its members. There were ma ny restrictions related to feeding, social intercourse. Caste had full control over the 1 ife of the person. One was not in a position to break these re strictions. Person has individual freedom in class system. There is no control or restriction over feeding, marriage, social int ercourse etc. Person if any class can establish contacts with person of any class.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 9 Social Structure Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 9 Social Structure

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Which of these is the feature of social structure?
(а) Structure tells us about external structure of anything
(b) There are many elements of social structure
(c) Different societies have different structures
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

2. What type of social structure is?
(a) Stable
(b) Moveable
(c) Slowly moving
(d) Moving fast
Answer:
(b) Moveable

3. Social structure is a ……………….
(a) permanent concept
(b) temporary concept
(c) breakable concept
(d) changing concept
Answer:
(a) permanent concept

4. The term social structure was used first time by …………..
(a) Naddel
(b) Herbert Spencer
(c) Talcott persons
(d) Malinowski
Answer:
(b) Herbert Spencer

5. Who forms social structure?
(a) Community
(b) Religion
(c) Values
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

6. Sequal form of different units is known as
(a) interaction
(b) system
(c) structure
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) structure

7. What type of structure modern societies have?
(a) Simple
(b) Complex
(c) Systematic
(d) Modern
Answer:
(b) Complex

8. Give any feature of role.
(a) One person can have many roles
(b) Roles are regulated by our culture
(c) Roles are functional in nature
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

9. Give any feature of social status.
(a) Each status has a place in society
(b) Roles are determined with status
(c) Roles are determined by society
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

10. The status given on the basis of birth is known as ………………
(a) ascribed status
(b) role status
(c) achieved status
(d) fixed status
Answer:
(a) ascribed status

11. Status which one gets according to his ability is ……………..
(a) role status
(b) fixed status
(c) ascribed status
(d) achieved status
Answer:
(d) achieved status

12. What is the base of ascribed status?
(a) Birth
(b) Age
(c) Sex
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

13. What is the base of achieved status?
(a) Education
(b) Money
(c) Individual ability
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

Fill in the Blanks:

1. The systematic form of different but interrelated parts of society is known as …………….
Answer:
Social structure

2. When an individual gets many roles at a time, it is known as ………………
Answer:
Role set

3. ……………. is the position which one gets and he needs to fulfil.
Answer:
Status

4. …………… status is given on the basis of birth.
Answer:
Ascribed

5. …………… status is that which one gets with his ability and hard work.
Answer:
Achieved

6. ………….. and …………….. are two sides of same coin.
Answer:
Status, Role

True/False:

1. Herbert Spencer used the word Social Structure for the first time.
Answer:
True

2. All the parts of society are interrelated.
Answer:
True

3. Spencer wrote a book ‘The Principles of Sociology’.
Answer:
True

4. Status is of three types.
Answer:
False

5. One gets ascribed status with his hard work.
Answer:
False

6. One gets achieved status according to his birth.
Answer:
False

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
Which part of society is expressed in social structure?
Answer:
External aspect of society is expressed in social structure.

Question 2.
Which units form social structure?
Answer:
Important units of society such as institutions, groups, associations etc. form social structure.

Question 3.
What do we get from the units of structure?
Answer:
We get sequence from the units of structure.

Question 4.
What type of concept is social structure?
Answer:
Social structure is a permanent concept which exists everywhere.

Question 5.
What is the base of social structure?
Answer:
The base of social structure is ideal system.

Question 6.
How many types of social structure are given by Talcott Parsons?
Answer:
Talcott Persons gave four types of social structure.

Question 7.
Name the sociologist who explained social structure in comparison with human body.
Answer:
Herbert Spencer explained social structure in comparison with human body.

Question 8.
Is structure of all the societies same?
Answer:
No, structure of all the societies is not same.

Question 9.
Name the two important elements of social structure.
Answer:
The two important elements of social structure are idealistic system and status system.

Question 10.
What type of structure modern societies have?
Answer:
Modern societies have complex structure.

Question 11.
What type of structure ancient societies had?
Answer:
Ancient societies had simple structure.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Structure?
Answer:
Sequal form of different units is known as structure. It means that if different units are kept in a sequence, a systematic form comes in front and it is known as structure.

Question 2.
Who forms social structure?
Answer:
Social structure is formed by different units such as family, religion, community, organisations, groups, values, status, institutions, normes etc. Except this normative system, position system, sanction system, system of anticipated responses and action system also give great contribution in it.

Question 3.
Is social structure abstract?
Answer:
Yes, social structure is abstract in nature as it is formed by units such as institutions norms, values, ideas etc. which are abstract and we can’t see them, That’s why social structure is also abstract in nature.

Question 4.
Name the type of social structure given by Talcott Parsons.
Answer:
Talcott Parsons has given four types of social structure and these are:

• Universalistic achieved pattern
• Universalistic ascribed pattern
• Particularistic achieved a pattern
• Particularistic ascribed pattern

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Social Structure?
Answer:
Our society has been made with the co-operation of many units. These units are institutions, associations, groups, status, roles etc. Just with’the collection of these units, society cannot be formed but is formed because of a specific system which exists in these units. For example, we cannot call wood, nails, fevicol, polish a chair. But when all these things will be joined in a specific system, then it can be called as a structure of a chair. In this way, all the units of society, which we can only feel, will be kept in a system then it is known as social structure.

Question 2.
Give four elements of Social Structure.
Answer:
According to Talcott Parsons and Harry M. Johnson, there are four main elements of social structure and these are:

• Sub-group
• Social norms
• Roles
• Social values

Question 3.
How is social structure the product of interactions?
Answer:
No specific design is formed to tell the institutions, groups, norms in social structure but they are developed because of the result of the social interactions. That’s there is no need to do any effort in this regard consciously.

Question 4.
Meaning of Sub-group.
Answer:
Different parts which exist in social structure are sub-groups. It means that many sub-groups like college, school, family etc. exist in a big group like a community. The structure of social groups is determined by the roles and status of their members. Sub-groups stay for a longer time than the members. For example, a teacher has a definite role and status in school but these roles and status never come to an end even after his death. But these roles and statuses are taken by any other person. In this way, even after the death of many persons, sub-groups stay for a very long time.

Question 5.
Meaning of Sequence.
Answer:
Many units like an institution, caste, norms, values co-exist in society. Just with the joining of these units social structure cannot be formed unless a definite type of sequence exists in these units. It is this sequence because of which we can see any form. Like, if the bricks, sand, cement, iron will be put in a sequence, then the form of a house will come in front of us. This is known as a sequence.

Question 6.
What is Social Status?
Answer:
Position of a person which exists in society, has been given the name of social status. This position is that by which person is known by his rights and patterns of his roles on the basis of his gender, age, birth, occupation etc. For example, if any officer is coming in office then everyone stands up, this respect is given to him, because of his position. A specific pattern related with his function is known as social status.

Question 7.
Any two elements of Status.
Answer:

1. Status is determined by the cultural position of the society because functions related with needs exist in society, with which stability is maintained in society. For example, in ancient times status of Brahmans was higher in caste system but according to modern culture, status of a rich person is higher.
2. Every person has to do his role according to his status. It means that role is related with every status.

Question 8.
Types of status given by Ralph Linton.
Answer:
According to Linton there are two types of status:

• Ascribed status
• Achieved status

Question 9.
Two characteristics of Social Role.
Answer:

• These are determined by social sanctions because these are the basis of culture. Any role done against social values is not accepted by society.
• Norms and values of society are changeable because of which roles also change. Different roles in different times have different importance.

Question 10.
Characteristics of Social Status.
Answer:

• Every status has a place in society.
• Status is determined by the culture of the society.
• Status is always comparable.
• Every status has a psychological base.
• The role is determined by status.

Question 11.
Characteristics of Role.
Answer:

• One person has many roles.
• The role is determined by our culture.
• The role is functional.
• The role is determined by social sanctions.
• Different roles have different importance.
• The role is changeable.

Question 12.
Importance of Role.
Answer:

• It maintains a social system and balance.
• It regulates the actions of individuals.
• It divides the functions in society.
• It regulates social interaction.
• It makes an individual active and affects his behaviour.

Question 13.
Role Conflict.
Answer:
Role Conflict is a situation that starts at the time when one individual needs to perform many roles at a given time and he is unable to maintain a balance between these different role. A person has many roles and certain expectations are associated with each role. When a person is not in a position to maintain a balance between these roles and conflict starts between roles then this process is known as role conflict.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Explain the meaning of social structure given by different sociologists.
Answer:
Different sociologists have defined it in their own way which are given below:

1. View of Herbert Spencer. Herbert Spencer was the first Sociologist who threw some light on the structure of the society but was unable to give a clear definition of the social structure. He explained the meaning of the social structure in his book ‘Principles of Sociology on a biological basis. Spencer tried to clarify the meaning of social structure on a the basis of ‘Organic Structure’. Durkheim also used this word but he also left it in halfway.

According to Spencer, the human physical structure has many parts like legs, ears, mouth, hands etc. and one organised system is there in these parts on the basis of which all these parts work for body. It means that our body works only because of collection of interrelation and interdependence of these parts. Social structure is also of same type. Yet different parts of social structure are like parts of the body but their type is different. Because of which some people are fat, thin, tall and, short.

“Social structure is of same type. Yet its all Parts are same in all societies but their type is changed. That’s why social structure of one society is different from other society. In this way Spencer has kept these parts interrelated on the basis of their function but with function mutual relations are also necessary. That’s why this meaning is very much unclear.

2. Views of Radcliff Brown. Radcliff Brown was a famous Anthropologist of England. He belongs to the structural functional school of sociology. According to him, “The components of social structure are human beings, the structure itself being an arrangement of persons in relationship institutionally defined and regulated.” Brown has taken many examples from Australian and African tribal societies to clarfiy his definition. According to him the system of kinship which exists in them is the sequence of institutionalized relations. According to Brown, “Human beings are connected by a complex network of social relations. I use the term ‘Social Structure’ to denote this network of actually existing relations.”

According to Brown, the way in which changes come in human physical structure, in that same way change comes in social structure but the basic element in both remains the same. It means that the units of making the structure keeps on changing. In this way if we look at the two societies then we will come to know that the basic elements of making them remain the same but units keep on changing because of which difference com6s among them. But with difference we cannot say that these both societies are completely different from each other. It is so because their basic elements are same and similarities remain among them.

According to Broyvn, social structure is not static but is a mobile continuity. Social structure also changes like human body but basic elements never change. Parts of making social structure are changing but basic elements never change. Structure remains the same but sometimes form of general structure changes.

3. Views of S.F. Nadal. According to S.F. Nadal, “We arrive at the structure of society through abstracting from the concrete population and its behaviour the pattern or network (or system) of relationship obtaining between actors in their capacity of playing roles relative to one another.” According to Nadal, “Structure is the systematic arrangement of different parts. These are related only with the external aspect of society and are completely different from functional aspect of society. According to him, society has three elements

• Group of people.
• Institutionalized rules according to which the members of the groups interact.
• An institutionalized pattern or expression of these interactions.

To understand the concept of structure we have to understand the concept of one society given by Nadal. According to Nadal, ‘One society is a group of people in which different humans are related with each other on the basis of social institutionalization that social rules control and direct human behaviour.’ In this way there are three elements in Nadal’s concept of one society and these are persons, their interactions and social relations which come out of those interactions.

According to Nadal, a system is related to the structure of anything but not with its functional aspect. In this way, society is a group of people in which different humans and their behaviour is regulated and controlled by institutionalised social rules. According to Nadal, human system in group is not necessary but the functions done by them should be systematic and regulated. In short, we can say that definite sequence or system of interrelations of different parts of society are known as social structure.

According to S.F Nadal, “ Structure can be transposed irrespective of the concrete data manifesting it, differently expressed, the parts comprising any structure can vary widely in their concrete character without changing the identity of the structure.”

4. According to Harry M. Johnson, “Social structure is made with the mutual relations of different parts. Yet change comes in the parts of social structure but stability remains among them. According to him, structure of any thing is the relative and permanent interrelations which exist in the different parts of that thing.” So according to him, the structure of anything consists of relatively stable inter-relationship among its parts, moreover the ‘part’ itself implies a certain degree of stability since a social system is composed of the interrelated acts of people, its structure must be sought in some degree of regularity or recurrence in these acts.”

5. According to Talcott Parsons,“Social structure is a term applied to the particular arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies and social patterns as well as the status and roles which each person assumes in the group.”

According to Parsons, the way in which different parts of the body are interrelated, in that same way different units of social structure are interrelated with which one specific system comes in front of us. Under this system every person obeys his role and status. Social relations are abstract and that’s why social structure is also abstract. We cannot touch or see social relations but alone can understand and feel. He gave one thing that status and roles are determined by the customs, traditions, beliefs etc. of society * Different agencies and institutions come out from these status and when all these are interrelated and organized in a specific system then social structure is formed.

According to Parsons, structure is not a single united unit but structure is made of different parts. These different parts are related with one another. If the relation between them would be temporary then they will not be able to give necessary co-operation in the formation of structure. That’s why co-operation of permanent parts is necessary for the formation of the structure. In this way the structure is the total of permanent parts. We cannot include changeable elements in it. But here one thing is important and that is that change often comes in different parts of structure and Social structure gets stability from these changes.

Types Of Status:

Question 2. How many types of status are there? Explain them.
Or
Explain Ascribed and Achieved status briefly.
Answer: Ralph Linton divided status into two parts:

1. Ascribed Status
2. Achieved Status

These two types of status are used in every society. Every person is different from each other. They are different from each other on the basis of birth and ability. Status based on birth is known as Ascribed status and the status based on ability is known as Achieved status because person gets this status on the basis of his ability. That’s why status in society are of two types.

1. Ascribed Status. Ascribed status is that which a person gets by birth without any work. We get this status automatically from the customs, values, traditions of society. Even exactly after his birth person starts getting these status. Firstly, he becomes member of the family and gets status related to gender. Then he relates with his kins and society because of which he gets relative status. He gets these status at that time when the society hardly knows about his qualities. Person gets status through socialization. Person gets these status on the basis of some rules and these bases are given below:

1. Sex: Humans are differentiated in society on the basis of sex like boy, girl, male, female. Some biological differences are also there between these sexes. In ancient times the base of division of labour was only sex. Females used to take care of house, males used to go out to arrange the food. Physically there are many differences among them. Some functions are limited only to biological extent. Yet the abilities of both male and female are similar these days but the situation on the basis of gender is same even today. That’s why, even in today’s age, many status are given according to gender and the position of female is very much lower as compared to male. But still many status are there which a female cannot get. Female was not allowed to enter the Brahmacharya Ashrama. According to Hindu religious books, person should have son to get salvation. In this way status of father, son, mother, daughter is given on the basis of sex.

2. Status on the basis of age: Age is also one of the important factors in determing status of a person in different societies. It is a biological base which a person gets without any hard work. Status of a person changes in different circumstances with the change of age. These stages are also related with the cultures of society. In ancient times, society was controlled by the eldest person of the society. Age is one of the important factors in India for marriage or to give vote. Person gets authority in society in a different way with age. We can take example of the family. Children are given higher or lower status according to the age. People make fun with the children in the family. At ypung age parents takes care of the habits of their children and often it is said that, “Now you are not a small child, behave, speak and work properly.” Persons are given punishment according to their age.

In modern times, status given on the basis of age have been changed because children with less age but more ability are given more prestige and respect in society. Young people work on the higher posts and people with more age work under them. In this way yet changes have come with base of age but still this base has a lot of importance. This base has great importance in maintaining balance in society. Person get his position without any effort.

3. Kinship. In the ancient times, kinship was so important that humans got responsibility on the basis of kinship. Son of the king was known as Prince. Prince used to get equal respect which the king was given. Identity of the child was being done on the basis of family or kinship. There was a special relation between child and the family. Child used to get caste right after his birth, in caste system, in which he was born. It means that he used to get position of the family in caste system. Person was known by his family. Princes were getting education and training of weapons, horse riding etc. They had to take responsibilities of the family. Every child has to carry forward the work of his family. Community membership, religion etc. of the child were related with ascribed status.

4. Social factors. Humans were classfied in different groups in many societies and there was a system of hierarchy in these groups. It means that these groups were considered as higher or lower groups. Classification of these groups was being done on the basis of different occupations or abilities like officer, teacher etc. People of one group used to keep relations with other group.

2. Achieved Status. In ancient times and in modern times ascribed status is of great importance. Person used to get ascribed status through the process of socialization. But in modern times man cannot limit himself to only ascribed status. If the ability of a person will not come out properly then society cannot develop. Ability of the person gives him the chance to move forward and person gets social position on the basis of his ability and even society gives him status.

Ancient societies were simple and classless, that’s why ascribed statuses were of great importance. But slowly and slowly societies started to become complex and with this importance was started to be given to individuals abilities. Person started to get achieved status with his hard work and society gave him enough opportunity to show his abilities.
In this type of status the ability of the person is evaluated on the basis of social values. The way in which society is changing, achieved status are also changing. These are limited according to the needs of society. Division of labour and specialization give many chances to person to achieve position. Money is of great importance in capitalist societies because of which position of a person is high or low. Because of industrialization, occupations are related with technology because of which distribution of status cannot be done on the basis of ascribed status. For example, a person cannot become doctor without taking relative education.

A person achieves status with the help of his hard work and efforts which can be kept on the basis of money, occupation, education etc. Person can develop his personality fully with this status. Achieved status is of great importance in changing conditions of modern society. Now individual’s abilities are of great importance in society. Lundberg was of the view, “The ascription of a particular status with the intensive training that such ascription makes possible, is a guarantee that the role will be performed even if the performance is mediocre. The ascription of status sacrifices the possibility of having certain roles performed brilliantly for the certainity of having them performed possible.”

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 8 Polity, Religion, Economy and Education Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 8 Polity, Religion, Economy and Education

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. There are ……………. elements of state.
(a) one
(b) two
(c) three
(d) four
Answer:
(d) four

2. The means to achieve State’s objectives is …………….
(a) government
(b) society
(c) people
(d) caste
Answer:
(a) government

3. Who elects the government?
(a) State
(b) Society
(c) People
(d) Caste
Answer:
(c) People

4. Which of these is an organ of government?
(a) Legislature
(b) Executive
(c) Judiciary
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

5. Who strengthens the economy of country?
(a) State
(b) Society
(c) Caste
(d) Government
Answer:
(d) Government

6. Which of these is an economic institution?
(a) Private property
(b) Division of labour
(c) Exchange
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

7. ……………….. class owns all the means of production and which exploits the labourer class.
(a) Labour class
(b) Capitalist class
(c) Middle class
(d) Lower class
Answer:
(b) Capitalist class

8. From where did religion originate?
(a) Human beliefs
(b) God
(c) Spirit
(d) Spiritual power
Answer:
(a) Human beliefs

9. Who said this, “Religion is the faith in supernatural powers?”
(a) Tylor
(b) Durkheim
(c) Laski
(d) Frazer
Answer:
(a) Tylor

10. Who wrote the book, “Elementary Forms of Religious Life.”?
(a) Durkheim
(b) Tylor
(c) Weber
(d) Malinowski
Answer:
(a) Durkheim

11. What is the function of religion?
(a) To break society
(b) To maintain social unity
(c) To not to maintain social control
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) To maintain social unity

12. One who have faith in religion is known as ……………
(a) Theist
(b) Atheist
(c) Religious
(d) Non-religious
Answer:
(a) Theist

13. One who doesn’t have faith in religion is known as …………….
(a) Religious
(b) Non-religious
(c) Atheist
(d) Theist
Answer:
(c) Atheist

14. In India, who is a literate preson?
(a) One who can read and write in any Indian language
(b) One who has passed 8th class
(c) One who has clear matric exam
(d) One who has passed graduation
Answer:
(a) One who can read and write in any Indian language

15. Who prepares syllabus for schools in India?
(a) U.G.C.
(b) University
(c) NCERT
(d) State Board of Education
Answer:
(c) NCERT

16. Ancient educational system was based on ……………
(a) Religion
(b) Science
(c) Reason
(d) Religious education
Answer:
(a) Religion

17. Modern educational system in India is based on …………..
(a) Religion
(b) Western education
(c) Culture
(d) Social education
Answer:
(b) Western education

18. In 2011, literacy rate in India was
(a) 52%
(b) 79%
(c) 74%
(d) 70%
Answer:
(c) 74%

Fill in the Blanks:

1. Weber gave three types of ………………
Answer:
authority

2. There are four essential elements of ……………
Answer:
State

3. …………… gave the theory of Animism.
Answer:
E.B. Tylor

4. …………… gave the difference between sacred and profane.
Answer:
Durkheim

5. ……………. gave the theory of Naturism.
Answer:
Max Muller

6. Marx explained about two classes i.e ……………… and ………………
Answer:
Capitalists; Labourers

7. ………….. education is that which we get in school, college etc.
Answer:
Formal

True/False:

1. Indian citizens are given eight fundamental rights.
Answer:
False

2. Half of the total seats in Panchayats are kept reserved for women.
Answer:
False

3. Indian Constitution was implemented on 26th November, 1949.
Answer:
False

4. India is a religious country.
Answer:
False

5. Population, geographical area, government and Sovereignty are the essential elements of State.
Answer:
True

6. Ideas of Communism and Socialism were given by Durkheim.
Answer:
False

7. In 2011, literacy rate in India was 74%.
Answer:
True

One Word/Line Question Answers:

Question 1.
When was the Indian Constitution passed?
Answer:
The Indian Constitution was passed on 26 Nov. 1949 by the constituent Assembly and implemented on 26 Jan. 1950.

Question 2.
How many fundamental rights are given in the Constitution?
Answer:
Six fundamental rights are given in the constitution.

Question 3.
When was Panchyati Raj Scheme passed?
Answer:
It was passed in 1959.

Question 4.
How many seats are kept reserved for females in Panchayati Raj?
Answer:
One third of the total seats are reserved for females in Panchayati Raj.

Question 5.
According to Gandhiji, which state is not right?
Answer:
According to Gandhiji, that state is not right which uses force or which is made with the help of force.

Question 6.
How is state formed?
Answer:
State is formed with conscious efforts so that it could be used for political objectives.

Question 7.
Who attains the objectives of state?
Answer:
The government attains the objectives of state.

Question 8.
Name the most important function of state.
Answer:
The most important function of state is to protect itself from any internal or external attack.

Question 9.
Who arranges for justice in society?
Answer:
State arranges for justice through Judiciary.

Question 10.
What are the essential elements of state?
Answer:
Population, geographical area, government and sovereignty are the four essential elements of state.

Question 11.
What are the economic institutions?
Answer:
Such institutions which care about production, consumption, distribution etc. are the economic institutions.

Question 12.
Give examples of economic systems.
Answer:
Capitalism, Communism, Socialism are the examples of economic systems.

Question 13.
Give examples of economic institutions.
Answer:
Private property, division of labour, exchange etc. are the examples of economic institutions.

Question 14.
How many classes are there in Capitalism?
Answer:
Mainly there are two classes in Capitalism—Capitalist class and Labour class.

Question 15.
Who controls the means of production in communism?
Answer:
In communism, everything is controlled by- the state.

Question 16.
Who gave the views of communism and socialism?
Answer:
The views of communism and socialism are given by Karl Marx.

Question 17.
Is India a religious country?
Answer:
No, India is a secular country.

Question 18.
What is Religion?
Answer:
Religion is an organisation of beliefs and rituals which regulate and control our lives.

Question 19.
Who originated religion?
Answer:
Religion was originated by humans.

Question 20.
Which sociologists studied religion?
Answer:
Durkheim, Weber, Tylor etc. studied religion.

Question 21.
Who is an educated person in India?
Answer:
One who can read and write in any Indian language is an educated person.

Question 22.
Who prepares school curriculum in India?
Answer:
N.C.E.R.T. prepares school curriculum in India.

Question 23.
On what Indian education system is based?
Answer:
Indian education system is based upon western educational system.

Question 24.
On what ancient Indian education system was based?
Answer:
It was based on religion or religious books.

Question 25.
In 2011, what was the literacy rate in India?
Answer:
In 2011, literacy rate in India was 74%.

Question 26.
Who established educational system in India?
Answer:
The British established educational system in India.

Question 27.
What is Formal education?
Answer:
The education which we get from school, college, university etc. is known as formal education.

Question 28.
What is Informal education?
Answer:
The education which one gets from his daily life experiences is known as informal education.

Very Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What were Gandhiji’s views on the powers of state?
Answer:
According to Gandhiji, powers of state should be decentralised or divided among different levels or powers must not be centralised at one level. If they will be divided among different levels, they will not be misused.

Question 2.
Give any two features of state.
Answer:

• State works for the welfare of its people.
• If required state can use force.
• State is having its own geographical area, population and sovereignty .

Question 3.
What is meaht by the Capitalist Class?
Answer:
Capitalist class is the class which owns all the means of production and money and it exploits labour class. It invests its money to earn more money.

Question 4.
What is Labour Class?
Answer:
Labour class is the class which does not own any means of production. It is always exploited by the capitalist class and earns its livelihood only by selling its labour. It does not have any money or means of production.

Question 5.
What is Communism?
Answer:
Communism is a type of economic system where the main objective is to make society a classless society, means to form a society in which there is no class available. In this, all the means of production are controlled by the state.

Question 6.
What is Socialism?
Answer:
According to Karl Marx, the system in which every one will get according to his needs and ability from the state. This system will have every type of equality and every one will get equally from the state.

Question 7.
How religion keeps social control?
Answer:
Religion is a faith in a supernatural power which no one has seen. An individual is afraid of this power and never tries to work against it. So he controls himself. In this way religions keeps social control over an individual.

Question 8.
What is Education?
Answer:
Education is the system which develops an ability in an individual to maintain balance with circumstances and society. It is the impact which present generation uses on the future generation to convert them into good citizens.

Question 9.
How does education affect the development of children?
Answer:
Education affects the development of children because its main objective is their allround development. After getting education, child gets good life and it helps in shaping his future.

Question 10.
Give any two functions of education.
Answer:

• Education controls and regulates our lives.
• Education tells us how to maintain balance with society.
• Education develops moral values among individuals.

Question 11.
What is a state?
Answer:
State is a group of people which is situated in a geographical area having its own population, government and sovereignty. It has physical force to control its citizens which it often uses from time to time.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is State?
Answer:
State is a group of people which has a definite territory, which has its own population, government and sovereignty. It has the physical power to control its territory and its people. According to Gilchrist, “The State exists where a number of people living on a definite territory are unified under a government which in internal matters is the organ for expressing their Sovereignty and in external matters is independent of other governments.”

Question 2.
Four characteristics of State.
Answer:

• The state protects the public interests.
• The state is abstract.
• State membership is necessary.
• The state has the. actual authority and sovereignty.
• The state has only one government.

Question 3.
Four essential functions of State.
Answer:

• The state maintains internal peace and security.
• State gives Justice to the people.
• The state protects the rights of citizens.
• State saves the country from external aggression.

Question 4.
Four optional functions of State.
Answer:

• The state tries to develop means of transport and communication.
• State uses natural resources for its welfare.
• The state gives education to the people.
• The state takes care of the health of the people.
• The state regulates the business and commerce of the country.

Question 5.
What is Government?
Answer:
Government is an organization that has the power to control and to give orders which helps in maintaining peace in the State. Government is the means of State to achieve its objectives. The government has got the sanctions because it has the support of the majority of the people. Government is a means which tries to achieve the goals of the State.

Question 6.
Four characteristics of Government.
Answer:

• Government is elected by the people.
• Government is concrete in nature.
• Government has many parts.
• Government is temporary.
• Government is the means of State.

Question 7.
Parts of Government.
Answer:
Government has three parts—Executive, Legislature and Judiciary. Legislature means Parliament or State Legislative Assemblies which make the laws. Executive means who excutes or doing work like Prime Minister, Ministers etc. Judiciary means courts, Judges which implement the laws.

Question 8.
Four functions of Government.
Answer:

• Government spreads education among the masses.
• The government tries to remove poverty.
• Government takes care of public health,
• The government encourages businesses and industries and makes rules for them.
• Government strengthens the economy of the country.
• It makes the appointments,
• It makes the laws.

Question 9.
What is Political Party?
Answer:
Political Party is a group which is tied by some rules. It is an association of the people whose only aim is to achieve political authority for which every one is doing a lot of efforts. Views of its members are common because all of them belong to one party.

Question 10.
Characteristics of Political Party.
Answer:

• Every Political Party has different policies,
• Members of every party are organized and controlled in a proper way.
• All of its members believe in same policies,
• All of its members have common plan of action,
• Every political party takes care of welfare of the country.

Question 11.
Sovereignty.
Answer:
The meaning of sovereignty is that the state is without any internal or external pressure. It should be independent and should take its own decisions. It is of two types-Internal and External Sovereignty. Internal sovereignty is that state is above all other institutions of the state and alljhe institutions under its territory should obey its orders. Existence of other institutions depends upon state. External sovereignty is that the State is free from any external power of the country. It is free and independent to make its internal and foreign policy.

Question 12.
Democracy.
Answer:
Democracy is a form of government in which people govern themselves. The representatives of the people, who represent the masses, are elected by the people on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise. Concepts like liberty, equality and fraternity are the basis or foundation of democracy. There is social, economic and political equality in democracy. Every one has freedom of expression and association within the framework of the constitution. There is maximum scope for individual and collective development of society and personality.

Question 13.
Power.
Answer:
Society is generally divided into classes and humans are given status and roles according to these classes. Each person has different status and roles. This division of society into different classes is known as stratification. When a person gets any position in society while performing his role and status then we can say that he has achieved the power. In this way, power is a process of contract in which decisions are taken in relation to preferences.

Question 14.
What is Private Property?
Answer:
By Private Property we mean by that property which is under complete control or authority of one person or group and with that the person or group should use that property for his personal profits.

Question 15.
Production.
Answer:
Production is that process with which everything is made to fulfil every need of a person. It can be defined in the form of using anything. Many things are required to make any thing like natural resources, human force, labour, technology, entrepreneur etc. In this way production is a process in which man makes anything to statisfy his needs and uses that thing.

Question 16.
Consumption.
Answer:
Consumption is also necessary with production because without consumption, production is not possible. Consumption means to use any thing and to use means that quality which makes any thing able to satisfy the needs of the person. It is the main function of every society to regulate and control the consumption for society.

Question 17.
Exchange.
Answer:
Giving and taking of anything is known as exchange. It means that to give another thing in place of one thing. Exchange is not a concept of modem society but is coming from ancient societies. Exchange is of many types like thing for thing, thing for service, service for service, money for thing, money for service, money for money. Exchange is of two types, direct and indirect. Direct exchange is of thing for thing, thing for service and service for service. Indirect Exchange is the exchange of gifts.

Question 18.
Distribution.
Answer:
For a laymdn the meaning of distribution is to take any thing from one place to another and by selling that thing. But in economics, Distribution is that process with which the actual and complete value of any thing is distributed in those persons who have contributed in the production of that thing. Different persons and groups have their own specific contribution in the production of any thing and they should be rewarded for that. In this way the money or reward given to them is Distribution. For example, rent to owner of land, wages to labourer, interest to the person who has invested money, tax to government. All these are getting their share in this form.

Question 19.
Capitalism.
Answer:
Capitalism is an economic system in which private property is of great importance. Production in capitalism is on a large scale and we can see stiff competition among different capitalists. Capitalist tries to get more profit because of which he invests his money. This money and credit are of great importance in capitalism. The biggest feature of capitalism is the exploitation of labourers.

Question 20.
Division of Labour.
Answer:
According to Emile Durkheim, meaning of division of labour is dividing functions among people on the basis of their ability so that the work could be completed in the best possible way. Division of labour is a social fact, moral system and automatic universal phenomenon which existed in all societies and in all ages. It connot be originated but it develops with time.

Question 21.
What is Religion?
Answer:
Religion is the name of respect of humans towards the all powerful God or the experience of standing in front of God. In religion man believes that he has established the contact with the supernatural power. So Religion is an experimental encounter with the holy God.

Question 22.
Give any four Characteristics of Religion.
Answer:

• Belief in Supernatural power is there in religion.
• Many rituals are there in religion.
• Many religious methods are there in religion.
• Every religion has its symbols of religion.

Question 23.
Functions of Religion.
Answer:

• Religion gives stability to social organization.
• Religion gives definite form to social life.
• Religion organizes social life.
• Religion plays an important role in maintaining social control.
• Religion helps in removing differences.
• Religion motivates to do functions of social welfare.
• Religion also plays an important role in the development of man.
• Religion also helps in the socialization of man.

Question 24.
Demerits of Religion.
Answer:

• Religion becomes an obstacle in social progress.
• A person lives on the basis of fate.
• Religion is against the National Unity.
• Religion increases the social problem.
• Religion is an obstacle in the process of change.
• Religion divides society.

Question 25.
Panchayati Raj Institutions.
Answer:
There are two ways for the development of local areas in our country. Local governments are there for the development of urban areas and Panchayati Raj institutions are there for the development of rural areas. 70 % of the total population in our country lives in rural areas. That’s why the institutions which have been made for the development of rural areas are known as Panchayati Raj Institutions. It has three levels. Panchayat is there for the development at the village level, Block Samiti is there for the development at the block level and Zila Parishad is there for the development at the district level. Its members are nominated as well as elected.

Question 26.
Gram Sabha.
Answer:
All the adult persons of the total population, of the village, are the members of Gram Sabha and it is the complete unit of the whole population of the village. This is the basic unit on which the whole structure of our democracy rests. Gram Sabha can be made in that village whose population is more than 250. If the population of one village is less than 250 then two villages can jointly make the Gram Sabha. Every adult of the village is a member of Gram Sabha, who has the right to vote. There is one chairman and some members of every Gram Sabha. It is elected for 5 years.

Question 27.
Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Every Gram Sabha elects one Gram Panchayat from its area. In this way, the Gram Sabha is an executive institution that elects members for the Gram Panchayat. It has one Sarpanch and 5-13 panches. There are certain places in panchayats that are reserved for backward classes and females. It is generally elected for 5 years but the state government can dissolve them even before 5 years if it will try to misuse its power. Government officials and mentally ill persons can not fight the elections. Gram Panchayat solves the problems of the village and develops many things like industries, agriculture, cleanliness, means of recreation, and means of transport.

Question 28.
Functions of Panchayat.
Answer:

• The first function of the Gram Panchayat is to uplift the social and economic life of the people.
• Village Panchayat tries to open schools in the village and motivates the people to send their children to schools.
• Gram Panchayat also arranges for the means of a recreation like films, festivals and opening up of library in the village.
• Panchayat tells the people about new techniques of agriculture and it arranges for new seeds and developed fertilizers.
• For the industrial development of the village, it also tries to establish any industry in the village.

Question 29.
Panchayat Samiti or Block Samiti.
Answer:
Panchayats, coming in one block are the members of Panchayat Samiti and Sarpanches of these Panchayats are the members of Panchayat Samiti. Members of Panchayat Samiti are also elected. Panchayat Samiti takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which are coming in its area. It checks the developmental functions of the village and directs the Panchayat for the welfare of the village. It is the second level of Panchayat Raj.

Question 30.
Zila Parishad.
Answer:
The highest level of Panchayati Raj is Zila Parishad which takes care of the functions of the Panchayats which are coming in the district. It is an executive institution. Chairman’s of Panchayat Samiti, elected members, members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and Legislative Assemblies are the members of Zila Parishad. All these take care of the developmental functions done in the villages of the district. Zila Parishad does many functions like improvement of agriculture, improvement-of land, irrigation, rural electrification, arrangement of seeds and fertilizers, education, industries, etc.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What are the major functions of Economic Institutions?
Answer:
Main functions of economic institutions are given below
(A) Production. Production means that action which a human does to make any thing to fulfil his needs. That’s why it can be defined in the form of use of anything. We need many things to make anything which are given ahead:

(1) First of all we need natural resources to produce anything from which thing can be made and generally natural resources are in limited quantity. All those things which are necessary to make anything are known as resources. In resources, material things and the human force used for them are included. For the production of material things we need good fertile land and good climate. To make alloy we need raw iron and to make electricity we need coal or water so that the machines can run. In this way for the production of things we need natural resources.

(2) Next turn after the natural resources is the human force. Human labour is used for the production of money. Whenever man makes anything then he uses his
labour and this labour can increase the usefulness of anything. How the labourer will get the fruit of his labour, will depend upon the economy. Like in ancient times in villages people used to work for others and they were getting food grains instead of money as their labour. But today person gets pay or daily wages in the form of money. In this way human labour plays a very important role in the production.

(3) For the production of anything we need resources and labour. Absence of one of these will lead to non-production of anything. With the help of these two and with the help of machines and other things of industry, anything produces in the factory. Whatever thing is produced is known as capital. In this way capital is that thing which is made by using labour on natural resources and which further can be used for the production of further capital.

(4) Except natural resources, labour and capital many things are there which help in the production of things. First of all comes technology. Technology is the collection of knowledge and complete art of society. The good and better knowledge and art of society will lead to the good quality of production in that society. With technology another important factor in production is ‘time’ which is necessary for the production of anything. If we want to produce anything then it should be produced within time unless it’s cost will be increased. Then next turn of way of functioning because the best method of functioning is to produce more in minimum resources and less time. It will increase the profit of a person.

(5) In the end the thing which is necessary for the production is capitalist or entrepreneur. In every process of production we need a definite direction and definite planning. In today’s modern and big industries, these industries are taken care by any group of people called management or by owner himself. Different persons contribute towards the process of production. Some people have natural resources, some have labour, some have money and some have tools. Entrepreneur collects all these things and produces a new thing with which he earns hig profit.

In this process of production, profit is distributed between all of them. With entrepreneur a number of other things are also necessary for the production like’ governmental policies, laws, wages of labourers, solution of their problems, regulation of business and commerce, formation of laws related with work etc. In this way because of these things anything is produced in the country. So the first function of economic institutions is to produce anything to satisfy the needs of the society and persons.

(B) Consumption. With production, consumption is also necessary because without consumption production is not possible. The meaning of consumption is to consume anything and meaning of consume is that quality which makes anything usable to fulfil needs of a person. In simple societies there is no problem of consumption because whichever thing is produced can be distributed and consumed very easily. Like it was happening in ancient societies where man was producing the food and was consuming it. But problem actually is in modern and complex societies where humans are developing some extra needs except their basic needs which are not necessary to live. For example good house, cars, things of pleasure etc. These things are consumed in a great number in complex societies because with them economy increases.

The main function of every society is to regulate consumption for society. Regulation of consumption can be done in many ways like by controlling production. Control on production can be done in many ways like to save the accumulation of natural resources and less use of natural resources even in high production. In this way export can also control this. We can affect the consumption by advertisement. Like if any new thing has been made then we can advertise about that thing in radio, T.V, newspaper so that people can come to know about that thing. In this way the consumption of any thing can be increased or decreased by advertisement.

Except this by legal restriction, consumption can be affected like to ban anything because of its bad effects, to give relaxation to anything and because of this consumption can be increased or decreased. In this way we can say that in every system one institutional system of rules is working like definition of property and distribution of rights, system of division of labour, control over the systems of production and consumption etc. In this way to regulate consumption is the another main function of economic institutions.

(C) Exchange. Giving and taking of anything is known as exchange. It means that to give another thing instead of any economic thing. Exchange is not a concept of today but is coming from the ancient societies. Exchange is of many types like thing for thing, thing for service, service for service, money for thing, money for service, money for mon’ey. Johnson keeps this exchange in two classes direct and indirect. Direct exchange firstly is done with the give and take of thing for thing, thing for service and service for service.

In this systematic business is also there and it happens at that time when the values of the things will be determined by political authority but can be changed with time. In this exchange of moftey is also there or we can say that things can be taken for money. Because of this exchange facility of exchange comes in people. In indirect exchange the exchange of gift is the general form in which one side is doing contract with other side to take any specific benefit from that and exchange of gift is done without anything or service. Except this group distribute the things in the members by collecting the produced things.

Capitalism:

Question 2.
What do you know about capitalism? Write in detail.
Or
What is capitalism? Give its features.
Answer:
Capitalism is an economic system in which private property is of great importance. Capitalism has not reached its advanced stage at once but it is being developed slowly and slowly. To see its development we have to study it from ancient societies. In ancient societies system of exchange of goods was there. There was no existence of concept of profit at that time. People were not collecting things for the profit but were collecting for those days when those things will become unavailable or even for social prestige they were collecting things. Business system was generally dependent upon the exchange of service and goods. No one was aware of economic factors like labour, investment, individual’s profit in ancient societies.

In middle aged societies business and commerce developed little bit. Yet at the start business was based on the system of exchange but slowly and slowly money became the medium of business. It has given a type of motivation to business and commerce because of which the importance of money, gold, silver and coin was increased. Money was yet not the property, but was the symbol of property. It has complete effect on the production forces and features. According to Simmel, the institution of money has affected the all parts of life when it became systematic in modern western society. It has given freedom to owner and servant and also affects the things and services and buyers and sellers because with this formal relations came into being in both sides of business. According to Simmel, money has brought a lot of changes in the philosophy of our life. It has made us practical because now we are measuring every thing in money. Social relationship and social contact become informal and formal. Human relationships become cold.

At the start of modern times economic activities were regulated by governmental forces. In this we can see the shadow of moving forward of European people under their monarchs. At this time economic activities were regulated by political authority so that the king’s profit and treasure should be increased. Country was running under the supervision of businessman and the business men were engaged in earning money like an economic organization. Production forces were also regulated by business laws. ‘
After this industrial revolution came which has changed the ways of production. Business policies were unsuccessful in doing welfare of the people. For the production of more things policy of ‘Laissez Faire’ was adopted. According to this policy there will be no interference in economic matters. According to this any person can see his individual interests. There was no pressure and burden on him. State has stopped interfering in the economic matters. According to Sumner, State should remove all the restrictions which were put on business and commerce and it should remove all the restrictions which were put on production, exchange and accumulation of money.

Features of Capitalism:

1. Large Scale Production. The most important feature of capitalism is the increase of production. With the advent of industries, production was started on a large scale. Capitalism came into being because of industrial revolution and because of which large scale production became possible. With the increase of big factories, division of labour and specialization, production was also increased. The meaning of more production was the use of capital on large scale and too much profit.

2. Private Property. Private property is the basis of modern societies and modern economic life. It is also the base of capitalism. In capitalism every person has the right to earn money and to keep property. Right of keeping property is seen as the personal right. Because of private property big industries, factories, corporations came into being and capitalism was increased.

3. Competition. One of the important features and results of capitalism is increase of competition. We can see lot of competition in big capitalists in capitalism. Demand is artificially increased and supply is decreased. With this capitalists area competing with each other. In this competition small capitalists are loosing and big capitalists are winning because of their money.

4. Profit. According to Marx, capitalism cannot stay without the profit. Capitalist invests on a large scale so that he can earn a lot of profit. In capitalism people are doing work and are producing things to earn profit not for social welfare.

5. Price System. The main aim in capitalism is to earn more and more profit. Value of any thing does not depend upon the cost of that thing but depends upon the base of demand of that thing. In this way labour of a labourer also depends upon its demand. Demand of that work is more whose demand is more in market. Value of the thing is determined on the base of demand of that thing in a market. In this way labour, value of labour is also determined in factory according to their demand.

6. Currency and credit. In the capitalist economy money and credit are of the great importance. Capitalists are taking credits and are increasing their business. This credit is given by money lenders, banks, credit institutions etc. With this credit they increase their production and are also increasing their profit and capital. They have to give interest on that credit.

7. Wages. The condition of labourers is very pitiable in capitalism. The main aim of capitalist towards labourers is to take more work in less wages. Labourers are exploited in capitalism.

State:

Question 3.
What do you mean by State? Explain wjith definitions.
Answer:
The main subject of Political Science is State but the word State had been used in many forms because of which a layman is unable to know the exact meaning of State. Generally the meaning of State, society, government and country has been taken as same. In the same way word ‘State’ is used “instead of country. But from political science’s point of view it is wrong. The U.S.A. is known as State and its different units are also known as States. In the same way India is also krfown as State and its different units like Punjab, Haryana, H.P., U.P., etc. are also known as State. But actually these are the units of State but not the State. That’s why it is necessary to know the exact meaning of the word State.

Etymology of the word State. The word ‘State’ has been taken from the Latin word ‘Status’. Meaning of word Status is the social level of any person. In ancient times there was hardly any difference between State and Society. That’s why this word was used to tell social level. In its modern meaning this word was used first time by Italian politician ‘Machiaveli’. He has used this word for Country State. In his book ‘The Prince’ he has written that “All the powers which had and have authority over man are State and are either monarchies or republics.”

So State is a part of whole society. It is right that it affects all the parts of social life but still it cannot take place of society. State is an agency which controls the social institutions. State affects all the aspects of society and it plays an important role in maintaining balance among them.

According to ancient philosopher Aristotle, there was no difference in State and Society because at that time, State and society were not in complex form and they were quite different from today’s State and society. Development of society is the result of those efforts which can be done for the fulfilment of specific aims. State is a means of administration which administers and controls the people. State has direct physical authority with which it can punish the people if they will try to break the Laws. State is a complete Sovereign unit which has every type of authority. It regulates the actions of different persons and institutions and makes a balance in their opposite aims. The main aim of State is the welfare of the people.

Definitions:

1. According to Maclver, “The State is an association which acting through law as promulgated by a government endowed to this end with coercive power, maintance, within a community territorially demarcated the universal external conditions of social order.”

2. According to Max Weber, “The State is an association that claims of monopoly of the legitimate use of the violence and cannot be defined in any other manner.”

3. According to Holland, “Numerous assemblage of human beings, generally occupying a certain territory among whom the will of the majority of an ascertainable class of persons, by the strength of such a majority is made to prevail against any of their number who oppose it.”

4. According to Anderson and Parker, “A State is that agency in a society that is authorised to exercise power control within a given territory.”

In this way from these given definitions we can say that State is a collection of people which live in a definite geographical area. It means it has its own geographical area, which has one government with whose help State does its functions, it controls its population and asks the people to obey its rules and it has its own sovereignty. By sovereignty means that it is free from any external pressure. It doesn’t come under any pressure. State protects its boundary from any external aggression and if there is any rebellion in it then it uses the physical force, in the form of police, which it has.

Elements Of State:

Question 4.
Explain in detail the elements of state.
Answer:
State is collection of persons who live in a definite land under an organised government which is sovereign. These fines contain four elements of State—population, land, government and sovereignty. It is right that different writers have given emphasis on different elements like some have emphasised on population which is united from social point of view. (2) Government or one political system in the form of administration. (3) Written or unwritten rules which can determine the limits of duties and authority of administrative officials. That’s why according to Willougby there are three elements of state-people, government and constitution. Sizwick has also given three elements. But according to modem writers, State cannot be made without 4 elements. According to Garner and Gattel there are 4 elements of State which are given below:

1. Population: The main element of a State is Population. State is not a group of animals. It is a political institution of people. Without population we cannot even imagine the establishment of State. The way in which we cannot imagine family without husband-wife and cloth without thread, in the same way we cannot imagine State without population. How much should be the population of State, there are no definite rules of that. Ten-twenty people cannot make a State. According to Plato the population of an ideal State should be 5040. According to Aristotle the population of the State should neither be 50-60 because with this it would not be able to make itself self-dependent nor it should be one million because it would not be able to control this much population. Rousseau has favoured a small State and that’s why he has given this number to ten thousand.

After looking at the population of modern States we can say that it is impossible to determine the population of State. But still we can accept the views of Aristotle that its population should be this much that it should be able to make itself self-dependent and its population should live a happy life. Administration should be made on it and a permanent government should be established.

2. Fixed Territory: The way in which population is a necessary element for a State, in that same way definite territory is also a necessary factor for a State. But according to some scholars, it is not a necessary element for a State. It was the Cluber who had accepted it as a necessary element for State in 1817. Seelay, Willoughby and Duguit had also not accepted a definite territory for State. According to Willoughby, “The State itself then is neither the people, the government, the Magistracy, nor the constitution. Nor it is indeed the territory over which the authority extends. It is a given community of given individuals viewed in certain aspect namely as a political unity.” According to Duguit, “Territory -is not an indispensible element in the formation of the State.” But according to him, there are many associations which exist in modern age these days. That’s why he accepts that the State should generally have its territory.

But modern writers are not accepting this view. According to them, without definite territory State’s existence is not possible. If population is the soul of State then territory is its body. According to Bluntschli, “As the State has its personal” basis in the people so it has its material basis in the land. The people do not become a State untill they have acquired a territory.” Until the group of people do not get any definite territory, State cannot be established till that time. Nomadic tribes are moving from one place to another that’s why they cannot establish a State because they don’t heve definite territory. Before 1948, Jews were scattered everywhere but they were without any State because they were not living at any definite territory of Isreal. Then Isreal became a State. Actually this element of State differentiates it from other communities.

3. Government. After the population and State we need the government to establish a State. The community of persons made on a definite territory, cannot be called a State till it is not organised from political point of view. Government is an agency with which State’s wish can be expressed and can be practically imagined. Without a government the group of people cannot be organised. Government regulates the mutual relations of humAnswer: It maintains peace and system of society and saves the people from external aggression. It establishes friendly relations with other countries. According to Garner, “Without a government the population would be an incoherent, unorganised anarchic mass with no means of collective action.”

Government in the State can be of any type. Democracy exists in India, U.S.A, U.K, Switzerland, Canada, France, Germany, Newzealand etc.. Dictatorship of communist party is there in China, North Korea, Vietnam, Cuba etc. In Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Monarchy is there. In many countries like Japan, England, India, Parliamentary government is there. In U.S.A Presidential type of government is there. In U.S.A., India and Switzerland Federal government is there. In Japan and U.K. Unitary government is there. It doesn’t matter that which type of government is there in any State because governments are changing all the time and it hardly affects its functions of making laws, welfare of the people.

Every government has three main functions

1. To make law
2. To implement law and
3. To explain law. For these functions of government, three parts of Legislature, Executive and Judiciary are there. Government should be so powerful that it should be able to maintain peace in the country and should be able to protect the country from external aggression.

4. Sovereignty: Sovereignty is the fourth important element of State. For the State, a definite area and government are not necessary for the group of people. Without sovereignty State cannot be established. Word sovereignty is the supreme power of State. State has many supreme rights and no one can stand against them. Because of sovereignty State has full control on its citizens and all its institutions. It is not under any pressure outside its territory.

Characteristics Of State:

Question 5.
What are different characteristics of state?
Answer:
1. Permanence: It means that the State is a Permanent Organization. In the words of Garner, “People once organised as a State remain always under some State organization.” If any State will merge in any other State or will cut-off from one State then it hardly affects the Legal personality of the State. With the treaties of war many States come to an end and can be included in any other State. But this affects the sovereignty. It means sovereignty of the State goes in the hands of other State but people live in the State. For example, Bangladesh was made separate from Pakistan. In this sovereignty went to Bangladesh and people were started to call as citizens of Bangladesh. From this it is clear that change of rule cannot change the State. That’s why State is always permanent.

2. Continuity: The State is not a static institution. It always stays in continuity. If the government will be changed then it hardly affects the nature of the State. In the government of people the State would be changed from monarchy to Republic then the rule will be of the people but it will hardly affect the international relations of the St&te. This theory is the theory of continuity of State and because of this the theory of heritage of State came into being. So all in all State never comes to an end. Government can be changed and comes to an end but State never comes to an end.

3. State is a powerful institution of the society: State is the most powerful institution of the entire society because it has all the means to force the people to obey its rules. Yet these means are formal like police, law, government etc. but with the help of these means it keeps control over all the other institutions. It binds all of them in one thread of order.

4. State takes care of public interest: One of the important elements of State is its population. It is necessary for the State to keep its people happy irrespective of their number. If the population is not happy then that State is useless. That’s why it is necessary for a State to do functions for the welfare of the people and in fact they do so. State never takes care of the interests of any specific person or group but it protects the interests of common man and tries to do welfare works for them.

5. State is abstract: State is an abstract word. We cannot touch or see the State but we can feel the power of the State. We even can’t imagine that what type of State it is. For example, we can imagine about the ‘Bharat Mata’ but we have not seen her that’s why we cannot touch her. That’s why State is abstract but it means the government is concrete because we can see our government and its form.

6. Membership of State is necessary: Membership of the State is not an optional subject which is dependent upon the wish of the person. All those persons who are living in its specific geographical territory are its members. No one can become member of more than one State at a particular time. Even Aristotle has written that, “Any one who is not the member of the State is either animal or god.” Without State, the needs of humans cannot be fulfilled. Without State, society was never a reality. It was just an imagination.

7. State has the actual Power and Sovereignty: It is the State which has the actual powers yet these powers are further divided but these are related to State. Actually all the powers of State are used by government in the name of State. Government cannot do anything which would go against the State. State has its own sovereignty. Government is also free but actually the State is free in itself and cannot function under the influence of any external pressure.

8. State is an aim in itself: State is an aim in itself and government is the means to achieve this aim. Power and authority of the State is supreme and no one is higher than State. Governments are coming and changing but State stands at the same position.

Functions of State:

Question 6.
Explain different functions of State.
Answer:
The main aim of modem state is the welfare of the people. State works for the development of the people. That’s why prof. Gattel and Willobi have divided the functions of State in two parts i.e. compulsory functions and optional functions. All these are given below:

1. Protection of Life and Property: Protection of Life and property of the people is a very necessary function of the State. The State should make a system in which every one’s life should be safe and should not be in danger. State should make definite laws related to property. For the protection of life and property, State maintains police which protects the common people from thieves, robbers and criminals.

2. Maintenance of Law and Order: The most important function of the state is the establishement of system of law and order. State forms or makes the laws to stop the criminals, to punish the criminals and to prOtet the life and property of the people. System of Police is established so that the police can catch the law-breakers and they can be punished.

3. Protection from External Aggression: State protects its citizens from external aggression. If any State is unable to protect its citizens from external aggression then that State will come to an end. If the life of the people is not secured from the external aggression, then they would not be able to try to develop their life. State maintains military for the maintenance of its existence. For the maintenance of internal peace and security, military can also be used.

4. Administration of Judiciary: That State is known as the best whose judicial system is the best. The meaning of best judicial system is that there should be no difference in rich-poor, literate-illiterate, and powerful-weak. It means that every one should be equal in front of Law. Every state establishes its system of judiciary. Independence of judiciary is necessary. Only independent Judiciary can give unbiased decisions. So the establishment of independent judiciary is a necessary element of State.

5. Maintenance of relations with other States: The way in which every person is dependent upon other to fulfil its basic needs, in that same way every State is also dependent upon other States, for the fulfilment of its needs. No state is self-dependent. Every state establishes its business, social and political relations with other states. To maintain world peace, it is necessary that every country should have friendly relations with other countries. Every state sends its representative to other country and gives permission to the representatives of other countries to live in its territory. Developed states are giving a lot of help to underdeveloped countries.

6. Taxation: According to Gattel to determine’currency, to keep taxation system and the collection of tax is a necessary function of a state. Without taxes government cannot do any thing. Less income of the state will lead to the less facilities to the people. A good state should have good income but only those taxes will be collected which are necessary.

7. Protection of Civil Rights: Every citizen of a State has certain basic rights like right of living, right of earning, right to keep property, right to get education etc. Even United Nations also promotes these rights. In the absence of these rights the life of the person will become a type of hell. In this way it is the duty of the state that it should protect those rights of its citizens and should make necessary laws for that. If any one will try to snatch away those rights then the government should punish that person. Optional Functions

1. Spread of Education. An important function of the present state is to spread the education. In ancient times the function of spreading education was being done by religious institution. But no state can leave this function in the hands of religious school. Education tells us about our rights and duties. Without education no one can become an ideal citizen and no one can develop his personality. Education is of great importance in democracy because the success of democratic government depends on the people. Every state establishes schools, colleges and universities for the spread of education. Scholarships are given to poor students and poor students are given better facilities of education.

2. Social and moral reforms. Present state also works to uplift the social and moral level of the people. In India many social evils like Sati system, child marriage, untouchability etc. were there;. All these have been abolished by the Law. In earlier times people used to eat opium and drink alcohol. That’s why these are restricted in many states. In earlier times people of China used to eat opium but now it has been reduced due to restrictions of Law.

3. Development of agriculture. Present state also works for the development of agriculture. Shortage of foodgrains will create a lot of problems. Then a country has to depend upon other countries for its requirements and sometimes it has to accept unacceptable demands of other state. That’s why government provides the facilities of good quality seeds, fertilizer, tractors, machinery, loan etc. Government also provides means of irrigation.

4. Development of the means of communication. Citizens cannot develop the means of communication themselves. That’s why the means of communication are being developed by state. State establishes railways, roads, telegraph offices, post offices etc.

5. To provide recreational facilities. Present state also arranges recreational facilities for the people. That is why it establishes cinemas, art centres, museums, parks, hotels etc. State also gives reward to literate persons and to good artists.

6. Public utility works. Present state also works for the Public Utility. State makes new roads and takes care of old roads. It also arranges for electricity. State also arranges for aeroplanes and ships. Telephone system is also arranged by the state.

7. Development of natural resources. One of the most important optional functions of the state is to develop natural resources. With the development of natural resources, country’s economy also progresses and national, income also increases. That’s why modern state takes complete care of protection and development of forests, finds mineral resources and their proper use and tries to get maximum profit from water resources.

Panchayat:

Question 7.
What do you know about Panchayat? Write in detail.
Or
Discuss the features and functions of village Panchayat with special reference to 73rd Amendment Act.
Answer:
Panchayat is an ancient institution of local self government which remains permanent even after many social and political changes came in country. Charles Metcalf says, “Rural communities are smaller republics which are living in their limits, can do anything according to their wish and are independent from external interference. They are coming from ancient times. Many revolutions came, families came to an end, but rural community has greatly helped the country for maintaining society and culture and a different state.”

Composition of Panchayat:

Number and Election of Members of Panchayat: Members of the Panchayat are known as the Panch and its head is known as the Sarpanch. Members of panchayat in every state are elected by those adult members of Gram Sabha whose names are there in the voter list of state legislative assembly. They all have the right to give vote in the election of members of panchayats. In this way members of panchayat are directly elected. The number of members of panchayat depends upon the population of the village. Number of members of village panchayat is different in different states.

Reservation of Seats: According to the 73rd constitutional amendment 1992, some seats are reserved in Panchayati Raj Institutions for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, backward classes and women.

Qualifications for the Members of a Panchayat:

• He should be the resident of India and he should possess the necessary qualification to contest as the member of state legislative assembly.
• He should be the resident of area of Panchayat.
• He should not be any official of State or Central government.
• He should not be declared bankrupt.
• He should not be a criminal.

Sarpanch or Chairperson: Head of the Gram Panchayat is known as Sarpanch or Chairperson. He is known by different names in different states. Election process of Sarpanch is not the same everywhere. He is generally directly elected in most of the states by those adults of the village who have the right to vote in the election of members of village Panchayat;* This system prevails in Bihar, Gujarat, Goa, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, U.P., Haryana, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Sarpanch is also indirectly elected in some states. It means members of Gram Panchayat elect one of them as Sarpanch. This system prevails in Karnataka, Kerala, Sikkim, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Tripura, Orissa and Arunachal Pradesh. Seats of Sarpanch are also reserved for SCHEDULED CASTES, TRIBES AND BACKWARD CLASSES according to the ratio of their population in the total population. One third seats of Sarpanch are also reserved for women.

Functions of Gram Panchayat:
There are many functions of gram panchayat which are given as follows:

1. To take care and repair of roads in its area.
2. Cleanliness of village.
3. Arrangement of wells, ponds, taps, etc.
4. Arrangement of light in streets and markets
5. Taking care of funeral places.
6. Keeping record of birth and death.
7. Efforts for primary education.
8. Security of buildings related to gram sabha.
9. Arrangement of markets of animals and to take steps in the improvement of breed of animals.
10. To celebrate social festivals except for fairs and festivals.
11. To control the change and the spread of construction of new and old houses.
12. To give help in the development of agriculture, business and village industries.
13. Establishment of buildings related to the public and taking care of them.
14. Establishment of women and children welfare centers.
15. Establishment of hospitals for animals.
16. To determine the place to keep manure at one place.
17. Giving help in controlling fire and security of life and property at the time of fire.
18. Arrangement of libraries, reading rooms and game grounds.
19. Giving help to poor people.
20. Construction of bridges according to needs etc.

Sources of Income:

1. Taxes. First source of income of panchayat is tax. It can collect only those taxes which are sanctioned by government like property tax, animal tax, occupational tax, token tax, road tax, octroi tax etc.

2. Fees and Fine Tax. Second source of income of panchayat is the fine and fees imposed by it. For example fees for the use of panchayat rest house, tax of lighting of streets and markets, water tax etc. These are imposed only by those panchayats which give these facilities.

3. Government Grants. The main source of income of panchayats is the grants given by government. Government gives different types of grants to implement the plans related to development made by them. Generally some part of land tax collected by government is given to panchayats like 15% in Punjab, 12.5% in U.P. etc. Panchayats of Bihar, Maharashtra and Gujarat even collect land revenue on behalf of government.

4. Mixed Sources. There are many other sources of income of panchayats like income by selling the waste of the village, income from panchayat land (shamlat), income from fairs, income from the property of the village etc. Panchayats have special source of income fishery in Andhra Pradesh and Punjab.

5. Borrowing. Except these sources, panchayats can borrow money with the approval of government.

Block Samiti
Or
Panchayat Samiti

Question 8.
What do you know about the Panchayat Samiti? Write in detail.
Answer:
Panchayat Samiti is the most important institution in the three tier structure of the Panchayati Raj. It is the intermediate tier of three tier system. It is established at the block level and it acts as a bond between panchayat and Zila Parished. It is established at Taluk level in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka. It is called by different names in different states. It is known as Panchayat Samiti in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. In Assam it is known as Anchaik panchayat, Panchayat union council in Tamilnadu, Kshetra samiti in U.P., Taluk panchayat in Gujarat and Taluk development board in Karnataka. In this way the heads of the panchayat samiti are also called by different names in different states. He is known as President in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. He is known as Chairman in Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, Orissa, Haryana, Punjab, Pradhan in Rajasthan and Pramukh in U.P. and Bihar.

Composition of Panchayat Samiti:

Elected members. Members of Panchayat Samiti are directly elected by the voters of that area. Number of members of Panchayat Samiti depends upon the population of that area and is different in different states. After every 10,000 persons one member is elected in Karnataka, 5000 in Bihar, Tamilnadu, Madhya Pradesh, 8000 in Tripura, 3000-4000 in Andhra Pradesh, 3000 in Himachal Pradesh, 2000 in U.P. and 15,000 in Punjab. In Haryana if the population of Panchayat Samiti is 40,000 then one member is elected after every 4,000 people. But if population is more than 40,000 then one member is elected after 5,000 persons.

Number of members of Panchayat Samiti is different in different states. It is 15 in Gujarat, 10-15 in Madhya Pradesh, 8-15 in Kerala and 6-10 in Punjab. If the population of Panchayat Samiti in Rajasthan is one lakh then it is divided in 15 areas but if it is more than one lakh then 2 member’s are elected after every 15,000 people. In Assam, one member from gram panchayat is elected for Aanchalik Panchayat. Number of members of Panchayat Samiti is not determined in Orissa and Maharashtra. –
Reserved seats. Some seats in every state are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women. Number of reserved seats for Scheduled castes and tribes are according to their ratio of population in the total population of that area.

One third seats of the total seats of Panchayat Samiti will be kept reserved for women (including the reserved seats for women of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes). Some states have kept some reserved seats for backward classes as well. Their population is kept in mind while keeping, seats reserved for them. Like in Punjab, if the population of backward classes is more than 20% of the total population then one seat will be kept reserved for them in Panchayat Samiti. In this way one seat is also kept reserved for backward classes in Panchayat Samiti in Haryana.

Chairman: The elected members of the Panchayat Samiti elect one chairman and one deputy chairman among themselves. This election takes places under the supervision of the officer appointed by deputy commissioner. Because the term of Panchayat Samiti is 5 years, that’s why the term of chairman and deputy chairman is also of 5 years. Seats of chairman are also kept reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes according to their population’s ratio in total population and one third of the total seats are kept reserved for women.

Functions of the Panchayat Samiti:

1. Community Development: The Panchayat Samiti is given the responsibilities of development functions in all the states. It implements the plannings of community development. It prepares the plans at block level and applies them in the block.

2. Functions regarding irrigation and agriculture: The special power related to the development of agriculture is given to Panchayat Samiti in almost all the states. It distributes the good seeds and fertilizers. It also tries to spread scientific techniques of agriculture. It also arranges for soil conservation and making the soil more fertile. It also tries to get self-dependence in procuring green fertilizer and fertilizar. It encourages the people to grow more and more fruits and vegetables. It also arranges wells, ponds and other smaller means of irrigation.

3. Animal Husbandry and Fisheries: Panchayat Samiti spreads the better ways of animal husbandry and arranges for their treatment to save them from any problem. It tries to improve the breed of animal, tries to spread fishries and determines the place for fisheries.

4. Primary Education: The responsibility of primary education is given to Panchayat Samiti in Ahdhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamilnadu, U.P., Rajasthan and Punjab. Except this Panchayat Samiti also arranges for information centre, recreation, youth clubs, women organizations, farmer unions, fairs etc.

5. Functions related to health and sanitation: Generally the function related to health is given to the Panchayat Samiti in almost all the states. It arranges for the injections of Cholera, Malaria etc. It takes care of hospitals, women and children welfare centres in the block. It arranges drinking, water, cleanliness, sanitation etc.

6. Municipal Functions: It always constructs new roads in the block and arranges for the repair of old roads. It also arranges for cleanliness of the block, sanitation and drinking water for the block.

7. Cooperation: Panchayat Samiti motivates the people to establish industrial and agricultural cooperative societies and helps them in obtaining loans from the government.

8. Planning and Industries: Panchayat samiti, in some states, has been given the power to make plans for the development of block at block level. It also helps in establishing small scale industries at lower level.

Sources of Income of Panchayat Samiti:

1. Taxes imposed by Panchayat Samiti. Panchayat Samiti can impose many taxes under the panchayat samiti and the Zila Parishad Act 1961 and these taxes are occupation tax, property tax, toll tax, token tax etc.

2. Income from property. Panchayat Samiti also has the income from that property which is in its control.

3. Fees. Income from the services provided by the Panchayat Samiti. Panchayat samiti can impose many types of fees, with the sanction of Zila Parishad, like fees of fairs, fees from the exhibition of agriculture etc.

4. Government Grants. State government gives many types of grants to Panchayat Samiti for the plans of community development and many other functions.

5. Land Revenue. Some part of land revenue is given to Panchayat Samiti in almost all the states and this land revenue is collected from the block. For example 10% of land revenue collected by Punjab government is given to Panchayat Samitis.

6. Loans: Panchayat Samiti can take loans from governmental and non-governmental institutions but with the permission of Zila Parishad and Government. But it cannot take loan more than 5 lakhs from non-governmental institutions.

Zila Parishad:

Question 9.
What do you know about Zila Parishad? Write in detail.
Answer:
Zila Parishad is the third and the highest level of Panchayati Raj. It is established at district level in all the states. It is known as Zila Parishad in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Sikkim, Orissa, Assam, Rajasthan, Haryana, Manipur, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tripura, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh and Arunanchal Pradesh, Zila Panchayat in Karnataka, Goa and U.P. and District Panchayat in Gujarat, Tamilnadu and Kerala.

Composition: Zila Parishad has some elected and some other members. Elected members are directly elected by the people by dividing district into different constituencies. But the numbers of elected members are different in different states. No such number of fleeted members is fixed in Tripura, Sikkim, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and West Bengal. After the population of 50,000 one member is elected in Bihar, Punjab, U.P. and Madhya Pradesh. After 40,000 people one member is elected in Assam, Haryana and Karnataka, one member after 20,000 people in Himachal Pradesh and one member is elected after every 15,000 people in Manipur.

Minimum of 17 members are elected in Gujarat and.20 in Goa. Number of elected members is 10-35 in Madhya Pradesh, 40-60 in Maharashtra, 10-20 in Kerala, 10-35 in Punjab and 10-30 in Haryana. If the population under the area of Zila Parishad in Rajasthan is 4 lakh then 17 members are elected but if the population exceeds the 4 lakhs then 2 members are elected after every one lakh increased population. Except Maharashtra, in all the other states, M.P.’s and M.L.A.’s are the ex-officio members of Zila Parishad. M.L.A.’s of Gujarat are called in the standing committees of Zila Parishad but they don’t have any right to vote. Except these the chairman of District Cooperative Marketing Society, Chairman of District Cooperative Central Bank, Deputy Commissioners of the district and chairman of Zila Grandhalaya Sanstha are the ex-officio chairman of Zila Parishad. If there is no member from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes then it can be nominated by the government.

Reservation of Seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Women: Provisions have been made for reserving seats in the Zila Parishad for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women. Reserved seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are in the same ratio with total seats which their population have with total population of the districts. One third seats of the total seats of Zila Parishad are kept reserved for women. It includes the reserved seats of women of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Chairman: Every Zila Parishad has one chairman and one vice-chairman. They are directly elected by the members of Zila Parishad out of themselves.-Chairman and vice-chairman are being called by different names in different states. Provisions have been kept for reservation of chairman’s post for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women. One third seats are reserved for women and for S.C.s’ and S.T.’s. It is according to ratio of their population in total population. Chairman and deputy chairman Can be removed from their posts by passing no-confidence motion against them. But 2/3rd majority is necessary for their removal.

Functions of Zilla Parishad:

The actual function of Zila Parishad is to bring conformity and balance in the functions of different Panchayat Samitis. Its functions are given below:

1. It gives its sanction to the budgets of Panchayat Samitis of district.
2. It directs the Panchayat Samiti’s to work with their full strength.
3. It can give advice to the government on any issue if the government asks for it.
4. It organizes developmental plannings made by different panchayat samitis.
5. It relates the related plans made by two or more then two panchayat samitis.
6. Government can ask Zila Parishad to complete any developmental work through notification.
7. Zila Parishad can give advice to the government for the development of district or for local development.
8. It gives advice to panchayat samitis to co-ordinate their different programmes.
9. It can collect some money from Panchayat S&miti with the permission of government.
10. State government can authorize the Zila Parishad to supervise and control the panchayats.

Source of Income:

Some of the sources of income of Zila Parishad are given below:

1. Funds kept by the central or state government for Zila Parishad.
2. Grants given by All India Institutions For The Development Of Large And Small Scale Industries.
3. Share of taxes given by state government from land revenue and other taxes.
4. Income from its own property.
5. Other means of income determined by state government.
6. Grants given by public and panchayat samitiis.
7. Money taken by Zila Parishad from panchayat samitis with the permission of state government.
8. Grants given by state governments related to developmental functions.
9. Some states have given permission to Zila Parishad to collect certain types of taxes.
10. Zila Parishad can take loan from governmental and non-governmental agencies. But the permission of state government is required for this.

Punjab State Board PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 7 Marriage, Family and Kinship Important Questions and Answers.

PSEB 11th Class Sociology Important Questions Chapter 7 Marriage, Family and Kinship

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What is the basic unit of society?
(a) Family
(b) Marriage
(c) Kinship
(d) Government
Answer:
(a) Family

2. Society has created an institution to satisfy sexual needs and this is …………….
(a) marriage
(b) family
(c) government
(d) kinship
Answer:
(a) marriage

3. Socialisation of a child starts in ……………..
(a) government
(b) family
(c) neighborhood
(d) playgroup
Answer:
(b) family

4. Who transmits culture from one generation to another?
(a) Neighbourhood
(b) Government
(c) Family
(d) Society
Answer:
(c) Family

5. Sexual needs gave birth to ……………..
(a) family
(b) society
(c) government
(d) marriage
Answer:
(d) marriage

6. Which relative is closer in matrilineal families?
(a) Uncle-niece
(b) Mother-daughter
(c) Father-son
(d) Grandfather-grandson
Answer:
(b) Mother-daughter

7. Blood relatives are relatives.
(a) primary
(b) secondary
(c) tertiary
(d) none of these
Answer:
(a) primary

8. Primary relatives of our parents are our relatives.
(a) primary
(b) secondary
(c) tertiary
(d) none of these
Answer:
(b) secondary

9. Primary relatives of our secondary relatives are our …………… relatives.
(a) primary
(b) secondary
(c) tertiary
(d) none of these
Answer:
(c) tertiary

10. That family is known as ……………. family in which husband wife and their unmarried children live.
(a) nuclear
(b) joint
(c) extended
(d) neo-local
Answer:
(a) nuclear

11. Which of these is the function of the family?
(а) Socialization of children
(b) Control over children
(c) Perpetuation of children
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

12. How many types of kinship are there?
(a) One
(b) Two
(c) Three
(d) Four
Answer:
(b) Two

13. What is the importance of kinship in the present age?
(а) Helpful in giving status
(b) Determines the right over ancestral property
(c) Helpful in the socialization of children
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

Fill in the Blanks:

1. In …………… family, authority is in the hands of the father.
Answer:
Patriarchal

2. In …………… family, authority is in the hands of mother.
Answer:
Matriarchal

3. In …………… marriage, one needs to marry within his own group.
Answer:
Endogamy

4. In …………… family, members of two or more generations live together.
Answer:
Joint

5. Polyandry marriage is of …………… types.
Answer:
two

6. On the basis of size, family is of …………….. types.
Answer:
three

7. On the basis of authority, family is of …………….. types.
Answer:
two

True/False:

1. In a nuclear family, control is in the hands of the father.
Answer:
False

2. Polyandry takes place due to less few of females.
Answer:
True

3. Polygamy is the most famous type of marriage in the world.
Answer:
False

4. There are two types of kinship.
Answer:
True

5. Family acts as the carrier of culture.
Answer:
True

6. In a matriarchal family, daughters do not get property.
Answer:
False

7. Members of a family are blood relatives.
Answer:
True

One Word/line Question Answers:

Question 1.
What is Monogamy?
Answer:
The marriage of one male with one female is known as Monogamy.

Question 2.
How many types of Polygamy are there?
Answer:
There are two types of Polygamy.

Question 3.
How many wives one male can have in Bigamy?
Answer:
One male can have two wives in Bigamy.

Question 4.
How many husbands one female can frave in Polyandry?
Answer:
One female can have many husbands in Polyandry.

Question 5.
Give meaning of Endogamy.
Answer:
Doing marriage in one’s own caste or group is called endogamy.

Question 6.
Give meaning of Exogamy.
Answer:
Marriage out of one’s own gotra or clan but within one’s own caste is known as exogamy.

Question 7.
Whose words are these, “Marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children.”?
Answer:
These words are of Malinowski.

Question 8.
Which type of marriage is most common in the world?
Answer:
Monogamy is the most common form of marriage in the world.

Question 9.
Give meaning of Polygamy.
Answer:
Marriage of one male or female with many females or males is known as Polygamy.

Question 10.
Polyandry.
Answer:
Marriage of one female with many males is known as Polyandry.

Question 11.
What is Affinity?
Answer:
Social, relations based on marriage are called Affinity.

Question 12.
Marriage.
Answer:
Sexual relations are sanctioned by society through one institution which is known as marriage.

Question 12.
What is Hypergamy?
Answer:
It is a type of marriage in which the girl can marry either in the same caste or with the boy of higher caste.

Question 13.
Give meaning of fraternal polyandry.
Answer:
When husbands of a female are brothers of each other then it is known as fraternal polyandry.

Question 14.
Who are Primary relatives?
Answer:
Blood relatives or direct relatives are our primary relatives like father, mother, brother, sister.

Question 15.
Who are Secondary relatives?
Answer:
Primary relatives of our parents are our secondary relatives like uncle, grandfather, grandmother.

Question 16.
Who are Tertiary relatives?
Answer:
Relations made with the help of secondary relatives are tertiary relatives like cousin, wife of mother’s brother etc.

Question 17.
What is Endogamy?
Answer:
In Endogamy, one has to marry within his own caste or group.

Question 18.
What is Hypogamy?
Answer:
Hypogamy is the marriage in which male of lower caste marries with the female of higher caste.

Question 19.
Institution of marriage is a basic institution. How?
Answer:
Institution of marriage is a basic institution because it is sanctioned by the society.

Question 20.
Give one reason of Monogamy.
Answer:
Monogamy was started to maintain social system.

Question 21.
Give one advantage of Monogamy.
Answer:
It is permanent and it leads to higher social status of family.

Question 22.
Give one disadvantage of Monogamy.
Answer:
If wife becomes ill then there is no one to take care of the family.

Question 23.
Give meaning of Polygamy.
Answer:
Marriage of one male with many females is known as Polygamy.

Question 24.
Give one reason of Polygamy.
Answer:
Keeping more than one wife was a symbol of social status.

Question 25.
Give one advantage of Polygamy.
Answer:
Proper care of children is possible in this type of marriage.

Question 26.
Give one disadvantage of Polygamy.
Answer:
There is always conflict between wives which disturbs peace of the family.

Question 27.
Give meaning of Polyandry.
Answer:
Marriage of one female with many males is known as Polyandry.

Question 28.
How many types of Polyandry are there?
Answer:
Two types-Fraternal Polyandry and Non-Fraternal Polyandry.

Question 29.
Give one cause of Polyandry.
Answer:
Less number of females as compared to males.

Question 30.
Give one advantage of Polyandry.
Answer:
Population remains limited with this type of marriage.

Question 31.
Give one disadvantage of Polyandry.
Answer:
Health of female deteriorates due to sexual relations with more males.

Question 32.
Fraternal Polyandry.
Answer:
When any female is having many husbands and all are brothers of each other then it is called fraternal polyandry.

Question 33.
State any three new trends of marriage.
Answer:

• People are opting for court marriage.
• The number of love marriages is increasing day by day.

Question 34.
How many types of families are there on the basis of members?
Answer:
Three types—Nuclear family, Joint family, and Extended family.

Question 35.
How many types of family are there on the basis of Marriage?
Answer:
Two types—Monogamous family and Polygamous family.

Question 36.
How many types of families are there on the basis of Nomenclature?
Answer:
Four types—Patrilineal, Matrilineal, Bilinear, Non-unilineal.

Question 37.
Nuclear family.
Answer:
That family in which husband, wife and their unmarried children live.

Question 38.
When was Hindu Widow Remarriage Act passed?
Answer:
In 1856.

Question 39.
From which language the word ‘Family9 originated?
Answer:
It originated from Latin Language.

Question 40.
From which Latin word, the word ‘Family’ originated?
Answer:
It originated from the Latin word ‘Famulus’.

Question 41.
Neolocal family.
Answer:
When male and female make their new house after marriage then it is known as Neolocal Family.

Question 42.
What are initial functions of Family?
Answer:
Satisfaction of sexual needs, procurement of children and upbringing of children.

Question 43.
Which type of relations are there among mother-father, brother- sister, mother-son, father-daughter?
Answer:
They have blood relations among them.

Question 44.
Which type of relations are there among Husband-Wife, Son in law- Father-in-law etc?
Answer:
Marital relations.

Question 45.
Initially where Socialization of a child starts?
Answer:
Initially, Socialization of a child starts in the family.

Question 46.
What is Matriarchal Family?
Answer:
That family in which authority remains in the hands of mother.

Question 47.
What is family?
Answer:
Family is a group based on sexual relations which is so small and permanent that it could procure and upbring the children.

Question 48.
Give two functions of family.
Answer:

• Family is formed after marriage.
• Family socializes its children.

Question 49.
What is Joint Family?
Answer:
That family in which people of more than one generation live at one place and eat from the common kitchen.

Question 50.
What is Patriarchal Family?
Answer:
That family in which all the rights are in father’s hands, family runs with father’s name and he controls the whole family.

Question 51.
What is Matriarchal Fatmily?
Answer:
That family in which all the rights are in mother’s hands, family runs with mother’s name and she controls the whole family.

Question 52.
On the basis of Marriage, how many types of Family are there?
Answer:
Two types—Monogamous family and Polygamous family.

Question 53.
Give two characteristics of Family.
Answer:

• family is a universal institution.
• Family is formed only after establishment of relations between husband and wife.

Question 54.
Give any two biological functions of Family.
Answer:

• In family, husband makes relations with his wife.
• Children take birth in family.

Question 55.
Give two Economic functions of Family.
Answer:

• Family arranges food for its members.
• Family acts as a productive unit.

Question 56.
Give meaning of Monogamous Family.
Answer:
That Family in which one male marries with only one female.

Question 57.
Give meaning of Polygamous Family.
Answer:
That Family in which one male has many wives.

Question 58.
What is Polyandrous Family?
Answer:
That Family in which one female has many husbands.

Question 59.
Give any two changes which have come in Family.
Answer:

• Joint Families are disintegrating and Nuclear Families are emerging.
• Powers of father have been reduced.

Question 60.
Which change has come in the structure of the Family?
Answer:
In earlier times, family members were more in number but now it has been reduced to a great extent.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Marriage defines the social status of an individual. How?
Answer:
An individual gets many status due to marriage like husband, father, son- in-law, brother-in-law. All these define social status of an individual. He becomes a responsible member of the society.

Question 2.
What is Nikah?
Answer:
Nikah is a legal contract whose objective is to provide sanction to sexual relations between couple and to their children’s rights and duties. Nikah is a type of marriage that takes place among Muslims.

Question 3.
Restrictions on Marriage.
Answer:
In few societies, there exist certain restrictions that in which group one needs to do marriage or not. Generally marriages between blood relatives and people of same gotra are restricted.

Question 4.
Intercaste marriage.
Answer:
When marriage takes place between members of two different castes then it is known as intercaste marriage. In ancient times this type of marriage was not allowed but today it happens everywhere.

Question 5.
Non-Fraternal Polyandry.
Answer:
It is that type of polyandry marriage in which husbands of a female are not brothers and they live at different places. Wife lives with every husband for a particular time period.

Question 6.
Defirfe Monogamy.
Answer:
According to Piddington, “Monogamy is a form of marriage in which one man may be married to one woman at any time.”

Question 7.
Meaning of Polygymy.
Answer:
Polygymy is a type of marriage in which one male marries more than one female at time. It is of two types—restricted polygymy and unrestricted polygymy. This type of marriage is not allowed in modern society.

Question 8.
Restricted Pqlygymy.
Answer:
This is a type of marriage in which one male was allowed to keep a restricted number of wives. This type of marriage prevails among Muslims and they are allowed to have 4 wives.

Question 9.
Unrestricted Polygymy.
Answer:
In this type of marriage, one male was allowed to keep as many wives as he could. For example, kings in earlier times were allowed to keep many wives. This type of marriage is now legally banned.

Question 10.
Status of woman in Polyandry.
Answer:
Status of woman in Polyandry is quite low as she is forced to marry many males and to keep relations with all. It leads to deterioration of her health. Polyandry is not good for females.

Question 11.
Write a short note on Monogamy.
Answer:
When a female marries a male then this type of marriage is known as monogamy. Until they both are alive or till they both are not divorced, they cannot marry second time because it is a criminal offence.

Question 12.
Write two demerits of Polyandry.
Answer:

• The health of a female deteriorates in such kind of marriage because she is required to satisfy sexual needs of many males.
• In such kind of marriage, there is always some problem between husbands regarding their wife.

Question 13.
Two merits of Monogamy.
Answer:

• Relations between husband and wife are quite strong.
• The better upbringing of children is possible.
• Family problems are quite less in such kind of marriage.
• Balance is always maintained between husband and wife.

Question 14.
Describe the main causes of Polygamy.
Answer:

• More sexual instincts of males led to the advent of such marriages.
• Wish to have a son because many girls also led to such marriages.
• Wish to have a large family led to keep more wives.

Question 15. Socialization of children.
Answer:
Family socializes its children and explains to them the methods to live in society and with this, they become better citizens of society. Socialization of children takes place only in the family.

Question 16.
Matrilineal Family.
Answer:
The family whose name runs with the name of mother and in which mother holds authority in all of its affairs is known as the Matrilineal family. Mother takes all the important decisions in the family.

Question 17.
Describe two functions of a family.
Answer:

• In a family, the property of an individual is transmitted from one generation to another and never goes to any third person.
• It is the duty of the family to bring and protect its children and their better development is possible only in the family.

Question 18.
Any two changes in the functions of the family.
Answer:

• These days, families are becoming more progressive.
• Females move out of the family for jobs and that is why their functions are changing.
• Control of the head’ of the family is decreasing day by day.

Question 19.
Lack of Family Unity.
Answer:
Now family’s control over its members has decreased. Now children care in crutches. One progresses with the help of his ability and he leaves his family. Females are doing jobs and are coming out of their houses. That is why there is a lack of family unity.

Question 20.
“Family is a process.”
Answer:
It is a fact that the family is a process. A child takes birth in the family, lives in the family for the whole of his life, and dies in the family. Family makes a child a civilized person and a social being. Only in family, one come to know how to live in society.

Question 21.
Neolocal Family.
Answer:
In such type of family, husband-wife, after marriage, do not go to their parent’s place to live. Instead, they make their own house to live where they live without any problem. Such families exist in the present age.

Short Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
Social Institution.
Answer:
The institution is neither the group of people and nor the organization. A social institution is the system of norms to achieve any aim to do any work. The institution is the collection of folkways and mores centered around any specific and important human activity. Institutions are the collected processes through which man does his work.

Question 2.
Two important elements of Institution.
Answer:

• Definite aim. The institution is developed to fulfill the needs of humans were: Without aim, the institution cannot exist. In this way, the institution is made for a definite aim.
• One concept. The concept is also an important element of the institution. One concept comes to fulfill the needs of persons which according to the group is necessary. That’s why to save it the society has developed the institution.

Question 3.
Four characteristics of Institution.
Answer:

• An institution is a unit in the system.
• The institution is generally permanent.
• The institution has clearly defined aims.
• The institution is abstract.
• Every institution has one traditional symbol.

Question 4.
Four functions of Institution.
Answer:

• Institution controls society.
• The institution gives status and role to a man.
• The institution helps in achieving aims.
• The institution is the carrier of culture.
• The institution provides cultural uniformity.

Question 5.
What is Kinship?
Or
Kinship.
Answer:
Kinship. According to Charles Winick, “Kinship System may include socially recognized relationship based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties.” It means that the system of developed social relations made by actual or blood and made by marriage is known as Kinship.”

Question 6.
In how many parts Kinship can be divided?
Answer:
Kinship can “be divided into three parts

• Affinal Kinship.
• Consanguineous Kinship.
• Formal or Imaginative Kinship.

Question 7.
Consanguineous Kinship.
Answer:
The bond of blood is called consanguineous -kinship. The consanguineous kins are related with blood whereas the affinal kind is related through marriage. . The bond between parents and their children and that between siblings is consanguineous kinship. This type of kinship is of great importance if it is sanctioned by society.

Question 8.
Lineage.
Answer:
Lineage is made by taking blood relatives of either mother or father. All these relatives are tied with the actual descent of either male or female. All these members are the children of one common ancestor, that’s why they never marry in their lineage. In this way, a lineage is a group of blood relatives that are the unilineal children of one common ancestor and they can be seen by one line of descent.

Question 9.
What is Clan?
Answer:
A clan is a detailed form of Lineage which has been made by. unilineal blood ‘ relatives of either mother or father. In this way clan is a group of relatives which are the unilineal children of any common ancestor. Ancestors are generally imaginative because one hardly knows anything about them. They are an exogamous group,

Question 10.
Characteristics of Clan.
Answer:

• It is an exogamous group.
• It has one common ancestor.
• Every clan has one name.
• All the members of the clan never reside in one place.
• Membership of the clan depends upon lineage.

Question 11.
Affinal Kinship.
Or
Affinity.
Answer:
Affinal Kinship is based on the marital relations or sexual relations of husband and wife. Yet they don’t have any blood relations but relations between them are established after marriage. After marriage, a man gets a number of statuses like husband, son-in-law, brother-in-law, etc. In this way, a female also gets a number of statuses like wife, daughter-in-law, sister-in-law, aunt, etc. These types of relations are known as Affinal Kinship.

Question 12.
Descent.
Answer:
Descent is that group whose membership is based on birth and people determine that to which aspect, either mother or father, he belongs.

Question 13.
Incest.
Answer:
The meaning of Incest is to establish sexual relations with any specific member of the family. In all societies, incest is not permittable. In incest disacceptance those rules are given in which sexual relations with specific members of the family are given. According to Levi Strauss, “Meaning of Incest is that different families can marry each other and it cannot marry within the family.”

Question 14.
Give the meaning of Marriage.
Answer:
In every society, the sanction is given to the regularisation of sexual relationships of males and females through marriage for the establishment of a family. In this way, marriage is the socially approved relation of male and female which forms a new family. Marriage not only gives sanction to the relationship of male and female but it also gives approval to many other relations. The meaning of family is not the sex alone. Marriage is the basis of the family. With the help of marriage, a man enters into sexual relations, makes a house, produces children, and upbrings them.

Question 15.
Main aims of Marriage.
Answer:

• The main aim of marriage is to establish sexual relations between males and females.
• Children get legal rights with marriage.
• It develops the person.
• Husband and wife bring their children after their marriage.
• Marriage determines the moral rules for a person.
• Religious values are secured with marriage.
• A person gets social status with marriage.

Question 16.
Monogamy.
Answer:
According to Piddington, “Monogamy is a form of marriage in which no man may be married to more than one woman at any time.” So in this type of marriage, one male can marry one female at one time. Relations are more stable, loveable, deep, and are full of sympathy in this. The upbringing of children can be done in a proper way in this type of marriage and children get full love from their parents. Husband and wife have a complete understanding of monogamy and relations are based on equality.

Question 17.
Merits of Monogamy.
Answer:

• Relations of husband and wife are deep in nature.
• The upbringing of children can be done in a proper way.
• Proper understanding is possible in monogamy.
• Family quarrels are less in number.
• The person stays away from the biological and mental tensions.
• Male and females get equal status in this.

Question 18.
Demerits of Monogamy.
Answer:

• Husband cannot establish sexual relations with wife at the time of her illness and her pregnancy because of which husband starts to go out of the house to make sexual relations.
• Extra-marital relations increase immorality in society.
• Many psychological problems increase with this.
• The upbringing of children is not possible in the absence of either one of them, male or female.

Question 19.
Exogamy.
Answer:
The meaning of exogamy is to establish marital relations out of one’s gotra, village, and totem. Males and females of one Gotra, village, and totem are considered as brothers and sisters of each other. According to Westermark, the main aim of exogamy is to restrict the person not to establish sexual relations in close relations. This type of marriage is the symbol of progress and it increases mutual contact in different groups. This type of marriage is considered good from a biological point of view. The major advantage of this type of marriage is that the boy and girl have to face many difficulties in understanding each other’s ideas.

Question 20.
Inter-caste marriage.
Answer:
As it is clear from the name when any male or female marries a female or male with another caste then it is known as inter-caste marriage. This type of marriage was restricted in earlier times because of very little contact between different castes. But today this type of marriage is very famous because of the unavailability of a suitable match in their own caste and due to changes coming in the outlook of the people.

Question 21.
Merits of Exogamy.
Answer:
Marriage is being done out of the group in this type of marriage. It increases contact between different groups and it also increases the exchange of cultures. That is why this is known as progressive and better from a biological point of view. Exogamy and inter-caste marriage increases love, cooperation, and sympathy in different groups and it also encourages national unity.

Question 22.
Demerits of Exogamy.
Answer:

• Selection of the mate is very difficult.
• Quarrels between husband and wife are more because of cultural differences.
• It hampers the family’s peace.
• It also encourages the dowry system and value of the bride.

Question 23.
Endogamy.
Answer:
According to the rules of Endogamy, a man has to marry in his own caste. Castes are divided into sub-castes and a person has to marry in his sub-caste. In the times of the caste system, this rule was strictly applied. If anyone was trying to break this rule then caste was throwing him out of the caste. So every person has to marry in his sub-caste in endogamy. It is so because it maintains the purity of blood, protects the occupation of caste, it fosters the sense of unity within the group.

Question 24.
Bigamy marriage.
Answer:
In this type of marriage one male marries two females and both the females are the wives of that male. This type of marriage is known as bigamy. In this type of marriage, a person has permission to keep two wives.

Question 25.
Polygyny.
Answer:
It is a type of polygamy. In this type of marriage, one person marries more than one female. According to Kapadia, “Polygamy is that form of union in which one man has more than one wife.” According to Mitchell, “The practice of marriage of one man with two or more women is polygamy.” This type of marriage exists in almost all societies. The sexual instincts of males and the wish to have a big family have encouraged this type of marriage.

Question 26.
Hypergamy.
Answer:
An important example of polygamy in Hindu society is Kuhn Polygamy. Everyone wants that his girl should marry the boy of higher caste but the boys of higher castes are less in number. One Kulin brahmin had to marry hundreds of girls. Many problems were there in finding a suitable match because of which the dowry system and immorality were increased in society.

Question 27.
Sororate Marriage.
Answer:
In this type of marriage, a person marries the sister of his wife. Sororate marriage is of two types—restricted Sororate marriage and simultaneous Sororate marriage. In restricted Sororate marriage, a man marries his sister-in-law after the death of his wife. In simultaneous Sororate marriage person accepts or considers all the younger sisters of his wife as his wives. The first type of this marriage prevails more as compared to the second type.

Question 28.
Levirate Marriage.
Answer:
In this type of marriage, wife marries the younger brother of her husband after the death of her husband. With this type of marriage, property of the family can be secured and family is prevented from breaking. Upbringing of children can be done in an efficient way. Another reason of this type of marriage is that after marriage there is no need to give back the value of the bride.

Question 29.
Anulom marriage.
Answer:
Anulom marriage is a type of Hindu marriage according to which the males of higher castes can marry the girls of lower castes. For example, one brahmin boy can marry the girls of Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra castes. The main reason behind this type of marriage is that the people of lower castes consider it respectful to marry their daughters in the higher castes. It is so because it gives higher position to them in society.

Question 30.
Pratiloma marriage.
Answer:
In this type of marriage males of lower castes marry the females of higher castes. Manu was strictly opposed to this type of marriage. According to Manu, the children produced from this type of marriage should be considered as untouchables. Manu says that the children produced by brahmin girl and shudra boy are ‘Chandals’. That’s why this type of marriage is seen with the hatredness.

Question 31.
Polyandry Marriage.
Answer:
In this type of marriage one female marries many males and she is the wife of all of them at the same time. It is of two types—Fraternal polyandry in which all the husbands of that female are the brothers of each other and Non-fraternal polyandry in which all the husbands of that female are not the brothers. She has to live with one husband for a definite period and during that period other husbands are not allowed to make relations with her. This custom prevails in tribes and it was started due to poverty, less number of females, sense of insecurity, bride value etc.

Question 32.
Fraternal polyandry.
Answer:
In this type of marriage, all the husbands of a female are brothers among them. This type of marriage prevails in Khas tribe in India. Eldest brother is known as the father of the child and rest of the younger brothers are known as her husbands. They establish sexual relations with their wife without the permission of their elder brother. If even after the marriage any brother of the husbands will be born then he will also become the husband of that wife. If, except elder brother, any other younger brother will marry anywhere else then other brothers are also permitted to make relations with his wife.

Question 33.
Non-fraternal Polyandry.
Answer:
In this type of polyandry, all the husbands of a female are not the brothers. In fact, they live at different places. Time is determined for the female to live with one husband. After that time period she goes to other husband and this process goes on. If at the time of pregnancy any husband will gift her the bow and the arrow then he will be considered as the father of the child. All the husbands are getting a chance for that and it is their right. Other husbands are not allowed to establish relations for that definite period.

Question 34.
Polygamy.
Answer:
According to Balsera, “The form of marriage .in which there is plurality of partners is called polygamy.” So the meaning of polygamy is to marry more than once. It means that any male or female can marry more than once. It is of twp types- polygamy and polyandry. In polygamy, one male can keep many wives and in polyandry one female has many husbands.

Question 35.
Changes in the institution of marriage.
Answer:

• According to the Hindu Marriage Act 1955, polygamy has been restricted and monogamy has been given both legal and social sanctions.
• Now male and female both can give divorce.
• Now position of women is better than earlier time.
• Love marriages have been increased.
• Many changes have come in the institution of marriage due to education, industrialization, westernization etc.

Question 36.
Types of Polygyny.
Answer:
This type of marriage is of two types:

• Restricted Polygyn: In this type of marriage, one is restricted to keep less than or a specific number of wives. He cannot exceed the limit of the number of wives which is given to him. This type of marriage prevails among Muslims.
• Unrestricted Polygyny: There is no limit on the number of wives in this type of marriage and one can keep as many wives as he can. This type of marriage prevailed among kings of ancient and medieval India.

Question 37.
Meaning of Family.
Answer:
Family is that institution in Which sexual relations of male and female are socially sanctioned. A family is a group of people that is known by its nomenclature. Family is that institution which has permanent sexual relations in male and female, which has a complete system of the upbringing of children, which has blood relations among its members and whose members are living at one place.

Question 38.
What is Nuclear Family?
Answer:
According to Murdock, “The Nuclear family consists of typically of a married man and woman with their offsprings, although in individual cases one or more additional persons may reside with them.” In this way Nuclear family is that family in which husband-wife and their unmarried children are living. After marriage, children are making their own different nuclear families. These are small in size. This type of family is generally progressive because decisions in this are being taken on the basis of reason. Husband and wife have the equal status in it. We can find Nuclear family in today’s modern age.

Question 39.
Give features of Nuclear Family.
Answer:

• Nuclear family is small and limited in size.
• Relations in nuclear families are limited.
• Authority in this is common. It means everyone has the same and equal authority.
• Every member in it gets enough importance.
• The woman has higher status in it.

Question 40.
Merits of Nuclear Family.
Answer:

• A woman has a higher status in a nuclear family.
• The status of living in it is higher.
• A person gets mental satisfaction in it.
• The personality of a person develops in it.
• Members of the family have the feeling of cooperation among them.

Question 41.
Demerits of Nuclear Family.
Answer:

• If anyone, mother or father would fall sick, then the household works would come to halt.
• It is very difficult for an unemployed person to live in it.
• If the wife is illiterate then the family can come to an end if her husband dies.
• Sometimes the conflict between husband and wife occurs because of economic problems.

Question 42.
Merits of Joint Family.
Answer:

• Joint Family protects culture and society.
• The joint family takes care of and upbrings the children.
• The joint family is the centre of social control and recreation.
• The joint family stops the division of property, increases production, and reduces expenditure.
• Joint family gives protection to elders and sick members.

Question 43.
Demerits of Joint Family.
Answer:

• Proper development of personality of the person is not possible in Joint family.
• Females have lower status in Joint families.
• Some members hardly like to work.
• More children are there due to no tension.
• There are many quarrels and conflicts in the family.
• Lack of privacy for husband and wife in this family.

Question 44.
What is a Patriarchal family?
Answer:
As it is clear from the name, power or authority in this type of family is completely in the hands of the father. All the functions of the family are in the hands of the father. He is also the head of the family. He is being obeyed in every type of minor or major decision. All the members of the family are under the control of the father. In this way the family is being run on the name of the father. Son gets nomenclature of the father and nomenclature of the father is of great importance. We can find this type of family in modern times.

Question 45.
Matrilineal family.
Answer:
As it is clear from the name, authority or power in the family is in the hands of mother. Relatives of the mother have more right on the children as compared to relatives of the father. Female is known as the basic ancestor. Legal heir of the property is not the son but is the brother of the mother or son of mother’s sister. Family is run on the name of the mother. It means that children get the nomenclature of the mother. We can find this type of family in some of the tribes of India like Garo and Khasi.

Question 46.
Give the main functions of the family.
Answer:

• It satisfies sexual instincts.
• It produces children.
• It upbrings the children and provides security to them.
• It takes care of the property and arranges for income.
• It gives education about religion.
• It socializes the children.
• It develops and transmits the culture.
• The family also helps in social control.

Question 47.
Changes in the functions of the family.
Answer:

• Families now are being more progressive.
• Sense of fulfilling religious duties is decreasing.
• Importance of traditional occupation has been decreased.
• Women are going out of the house for job, that’s why their functions are changing.
• Joint families are disintegrating.

Question 48.
Consanguine Family.
Answer:
In this type of family, blood relations are at the highest place and there are no sexual relations in it. Husband and wife are also there in this type of family but they are not the base of this family. Membership of this type of family can be attained only on the basis of birth. This type of family never comes to an end after divorce. It is permanent.

Question 49.
Matrilocal Family.
Answer:
This type of family is definitely opposite to Patrilocal family in which girl never leaves her father’s house after marriage but it lives there only. In this, her husband leaves his father’s house and goes to the house of his wife to live. It is known as Matrilocal family. We can find this type of family in Garo and Khasi tribes.

Question 50.
Patrilocal Family.
Answer:
In this type of family, bride leaves her father’s house and goes to the house of her husband to live and establish the family. We can see this type of family very often.

Question 51.
Neolocal Family.
Answer:
This type of family is different from the Patrilocal family and Matrilocal family. In this neither husband nor wife goes to their father’s house to live but they establish their new house at any other place and that’s why it is known as the Neolocal family. We can find this type of family in today’s industrial society.

Long Answer Type Questions:

Question 1.
What is Monogamy? What are its causes, merits, and demerits?
Answer:
The type of marriage which exists in the modern age is Monogamy. It means that at one time one male can marry with one female or at one time one female can marry with one male. That’s why it is known as Monogamy. In today’s cultural societies, this type of marriage is of great importance. According to Malinowski, “Monogamy is, has been and will remain the only true type of marriage.”

According to Piddington, “Monogamy is a form of marriage in which no man may be married to more than one woman at any time.” In the Indian society, according to Hindu religion, Monogamy is known as the ideal type of marriage. In ancient times husband was just like a god for the wife. After the death of her husband, wife was preferred to become ‘Sati’ instead of living the life of a widow. According to the Hindu Marriage Act 1955, Polygamy was restricted and sanction was given to Monogamy. In modern age laws become so strict that no one can go for second marriage without taking divorce from first partner or only after the death of first partner. Only in some special conditions second marriage was permitted like in the case of no child or husband or wife is suffering from any chronical disease.

(1) In the modern society, only the custom of monogamy exists. Because of this custom social progress becomes possible. Where there is monogamy there society has progressed a lot. So for social progress monogamy is necessary.

(2) Because of equal population of males and females, monogamy is necessary. Because of equality of ratio of their population, stability has come in society.

(3) Because of the sense of monopoly, the type of monogamy cattie into being. In ancient societies when the institution of marriage was not in regulation, then any male was free to have relations with any female. After sometime a feeling of hatred was started among them because a wish came in the mind of every person that his female should not go to the other male. The persons who were physically strong, started to keep monopoly on the females. Slowly and slowly this sense of monopoly was accepted in society and in modern societies this custom of monogamy came into being.

(4) During ancient times price of females was kept. Persons, who were able to pay that value, were given that female. Except this, because of stability of the family the marriage of one male with one female was there.

(5) Position of females is changed in modern societies due to their education and occupational abilities. Now they are able to take decisions about themselves. That’s why also the custom of monogamy has become popular.

Advantages of Monogamy:

1. Change in the status of woman. In ancient times status of woman was very low. Behaviour towards females was very rude. Even in Ashrama Scheme females were restricted to enter in the Brahmacharya Ashram. Their function was limited only to produce children and household works. Except this if we see the caste system then birth of female child was not acceptable. She had no right to live without her husband and was forced to die with the death of her husband. Slowly and slowly changes came in the field of education and now her status is equal to the status of males. That’s why she came in equal terms with males because of monogamy. The status of women has been changed completely with monogamy.

2. Upbringing Of children. Now, the upbringing of children is done in a better way and that is because of this type of marriage. .In other types of marriage the feeling of hatred exists among the children. Even the love among the members of the family is artificial in nature. With this type of marriage children get complete love of their parents. They take care of their ^Very type of needs. Capabilities of children and their knowledge have been increased and their personality is developed.

3. Stability of the family. With the help of this type of marriage, families become more stable. Males and females get more chance to understand each othet. Family cannot progress without the cooperation of both male and female. In the polygamy conflict is always there. Neither man can give complete love to female and nor female can give complete love to male. Tension always prevails in this type of condition. This situation affects the children which results in non-development of children completely. That’s why because of monogamy, family life got more stability.

4. Division of property. Because of division of property, polygamy becomes a problem for society. Even brothers try to kill each other for property. But the custom of monogamy has solved this problem. After the death of the person his property is equally divided among his children.

5. Higher standard of living. The life of modern human being is quite easy and comfortable as compared to ancient times where one male has to take care of only one female and one female has to take care of only one male. Every person can give good education to his children and can give lot of comforts to them. In polygamy upbringing of more number of children is difficult. Because of monogamy, limited number of persons are there in family. Great care is generally given to good food and way of living. That’s why because of this type of marriage standard of living has become higher.

Disadvantages of Monogamy:

1. In monogamy when a woman is pregnant then she cannot cooperate fully with her husband. Except this, even at the time of illness she can hardly cooperate with him. Because of this males started to go out of the house to fulfill their sexual satisfaction and prostitutes came into being. In some conditions, male and female have to live with each other forcefully, even if they hardly love each other. Then also they move out of the house for their biological satisfaction.

2. Second demerit of this type of marriage is that if husband or wife or any one of them is ill then many problems can come in the house. Children have to face the problem of food and many psychological problems occur in the family.

It is right that very marginal demerits are there in this type of marriages but still monogamy is better than other types of marriages and successful also. Today monogamy is known as the ideal type of marriage. Birth rate of male and female is almost equal and if we start giving preference to polygamy then many males and females have to live without marriage. That’s why monogamy is necessary for our society so that the boys and girls may get equal respect in society. According to Malinowski, “Monogamy is, has been and will remain only true type of marriage.”

Polygamy:

Question 2.
What is Polygamy? What are its types, causes, merits, and demerits?
Answer:
By Polygamy we mean when one male or female will marry more than one male or female then the name of polygamy is given.- It means at one time a male can keep more than one wife and a female can have more than one husband. According to Balsera, “The form of marriage in which there is a plurality of partners is called polygamy.”

Further, there are some types of Polygamy which are given below:

1. Bigamy
2. Polygyny
3. Polyandry

Bigamy:

In this type of marriage, a male can have the sanction to marry only two females. This type of marriage was there only in Punjab.

Polygyny:

In this type of marriage one male marries many females. It means that when a male marries many females and have many wives then it is known as Polygyny. According to K.M. Kapadia, “Polygyny is that form of union in which one man has more than one wife.” According to G.D. Mitchell, “The practice of marriage of one man with two or more women is polygyny.” According to Rivers, “It is the commonest form of marriage everywhere. So far as we know, it is not universal but is the privilege of the powerful and rich.”

In ancient times this type of marriage was very famous but today it does not prevail. Even today in some tribes like Hebrids, Babylonian, Tribes of Eskimo, Crow of North America, etc. this type of marriage prevails. In ancient times when members of one group won over the other group then they were accepting the females of the defeated group as their wives. According to Kapadia, to complete religious rituals, religious books of Hindus have given permission to keep four wives. First wife is known as ‘Mahishi’, the second ‘Privriti,’ third “Vakta’, and the fourth wife is known as ‘Plagali’. The status of first wife was higher as compared to the other three. The second was powerful, third was most lovable for husband, fourth was the daughter of lowest officer of the court of the king.

Polygyny can be further divided into two parts.

• Restricted Polygyny marriage
• Unrestricted Polygyny marriage

(a) Restricted Polygyny: In this type of polygamy marriage, the number of wives is limited to a certain number. A person cannot keep wives beyond that limited number. Among Muslims according to this type of marriage, number of wives for a male is the limited maximum up to four.

(b) Unrestricted Polygyny: According to this type of marriage, a man can keep wives as many as he wants. There is no limit to the number of wives. In ancient times, Kings were used to practicing this type of marriage.

Causes of Polygyny:

(1) This type of marriage prevails because of the fact that females become old quite early as compared to males. After the birth of the child health of females also deteriorates. This generally prevails in non-civilized societies.

(2) After some time of marriage, sexual relationships were restricted. For example
at the time of pregnancy sexual relationships are restricted. That’s why more than one marriage is permitted. ‘

(3) More sexual instinct of men is the main reason for this type of marriage. Sometimes men need a change and this is also a reason behind Polygyny.

(4) In ancient societies very big families had good social status in the society. So the wish of a big family also motivated this type of marriage.

(5) In ancient tribal societies Heads of tribes believed in getting prestige in society by marrying more than once because people think that he is from a rich family.

(6) Sometimes economic factor is also a reason for polygamy. In agricultural works, males need more help than females and that’s why they start to marry more than one female.

Merits of Polygyny:

(1) Children’s upbringing is possible in a good and proper manner with polygamy because females can collectively take care of them. If any wife would become sick then others can take care of the children.

(2) Another merit of polygyny is that with this custom there is no need to go to prostitutes to spend money for pleasure. He can get newness only in the family and his sexual instincts can be satisfied. With this practice of polygamy, the family can be saved.

(3) With this custom children become healthy because there is no need for a female to produce many children.

(4) When Kulin Vivaha was started because of this custom then the brotherhood among different castes was increased.

Demerits of Polygyny:

(1) The most important demerit of polygyny is the low status of women in society because women were used as the means of recreation and pleasure for males. Males had no feeling or sense of love towards females. In fact, he was related to her only to satisfy his sexual instincts. Anyone hardly cared about the feelings of females. There was no individual existence of females in society.

(2) When females were left with unsatisfied sexual instincts then they used to establish sexual relations with males except for their husband because a person can satisfy his instincts by marrying many wives but he cannot satisfy all the females.

(3) Because of polygyny the atmosphere of the family becomes uneasy because females are more in number and they are fighting with each other. For example, in Ramayana, queen Kekeyi forced her husband, king Dashrath to send Ram to the forests so that her son Bharata should be the new king. So we want to say that quarrels, fighting, jealousy exist in families with this custom.

(4) Because of Polygyny the head of the family is under a great economic pressure because just one member of the family earns but other members of the family are dependent upon him. So the status of the family becomes very low with this.

(5) Size of the file family becomes too big. That’s why many psychological problems occur in the family.

Polyandry:

Question 3.
What is Polyandry? Explain its causes, merits, and demerits.
Answer:
The custom of polyandry prevails in many societies of the world. The meaning of polyandry is the custom of that marriage in which one female marries many males at a given time and that’s why it is known as polyandry. Generally, in the families of tribes of Tibet, Marcusheim of Polynesia, today’s Malabar, Venzuala, and Malaya this type of custom still prevails. In ‘Mahabharata’, five Pandava brothers had one wife. In the Khas tribe of Dehradun, Toda tribe of Central India, Kot tribe of Kerala this system of Polyandry still prevails. Except this, this custom is also sanctioned in many tribes of hilly areas. Different scholars have given different views about it.

According to K.M. Kapadia, “Polyandry is a form of union in which a woman has more than one husband at a time or in which brothers share a wife or wives in common.” According to G.D. Mitchell, “The practice of marriage of one woman to two or more men, is stated as Polyandry.” In this way, the practice in which one female has more than one husband is known as Polyandry.

There are two forms of polyandrous marriage:

• Fraternal Polyandry
• Non-Fraternal Polyandry

Fraternal Polyandry:

In the custom of fraternal polyandry, all husbands of a female are brothers among them. This type of marriage prevails in the Khas Tribe in India. The eldest brother is known as the father of a child and rest younger brother are her husbands. They establish sexual relations with their wife with the permission of their elder brother. The elder brother is the head of the family and it is his duty to bring the children in a proper way. If even after the marriage any brother of the husbands will be bom then he will also become the husband of that female. If except elder brother, any other younger brother will marry any where else then other brothers also have the permission to have relations with her. If that brother did not permit for this and showed monopoly on her then he was forced to leave his property’s right. This type of marriage also prevails in the tribes of Nilgiri, Laddakh, Sikkim, Assam.

Non-Fraternal Polyandry:

In this type of polyandry, all the husbands of a female are not the brothers. Infact, they live at different places. Time is determined for female that for how much time she has to live with any husband. After the expiry of time period she goes to other husband and this process goes on. If in this type, female will die then all males are forced to live the life of widower. In some tribes, where this system prevails, if at the time of pregnancy any husband gifts her the arrow and the bow then he was accepted as the father of the child. All husbands will get a chance for that and it is their right. In this way according to this custom the rule is that if in a definite period wife lives with any husband then other husbands are not permitted to have sexual relations with the wife.

Causes of Polyandry:

(1) In the ancient times, it was very difficult for a person to take responsibility of the whole family and that’s why some persons were collectively marrying one female. According to Dr. Kapadia, this custom prevails even because of difficult natural conditions. In ancient times when man was moving beyond the range of family in search of food then some persons were engaged in these activities and some persons were living at home to take care of the family.

(2) To control the increasing population, this type of marriage was adopted. It helps in limiting the size of the family because with this the number of produced children will remain less in number.

(3) According to some sociologists less number of females as compared to males was the main reason behind this custom. In Toda tribe this was the main reason behind this type of custom.

(4) In some areas husband has to pay the price of the bride and then only he can make her as his wife. Sometimes this price of the bride was too high that it was beyond the limit of a single man. That’s why some people jointly were able to pay the price of the bride. That’s why they were accepting her jointly as their wife.

(5) Another reason of Polyandry is poverty. Sumner has written about Tibbet that production in Tibbet is very less and because of this it is very difficult for a person to give bread and butter to his family. That’s why collectively they were providing food and other things to the family.

Merits of Polyandry:

(1) With polyandry, the increase of population can be checked because in many areas the main reason of poverty is more population. This custom can reduce the number of children in society.

(2) On one side this custom controls the population and on another side it helps in taking status of living high, because there are less responsibilities on bread earners. The number of bread earners is more and that’s why there is no economic pressure on the family.

(3) With this custom, the custom of joint family also came into being and size of the family remains small. Very less number of quarrels are there because every person of the family works for the collective progress of the family.

(4) With this custom of polyandry, upbringing of children is possible in a proper and permanent way because the responsibility of upbringing of children belongs jointly to all members of the family. Children can get love of both, mother and father, which is necessary for the formation of his character and personality. Very less situation of conflict is there.

(5) With this custom there is no need for division of property of the family because of which the feelings of love, brotherhood and cooperation exist among the members of the society.

Demerits of Polyandry:

(1) The biggest disadvantage of polyandry is the health of the female because one female has to satisfy the sexual needs of many males which results in the deterioration of her health.

(2) This custom helps in reducing birth rate. If this custom will prevail for next few years then in next few years that society will come to an end.

(3) All males cannot be sexually satisfied with this because wife has to live with one husband for a definite period. When she is living with a husband for a definite period then others are restricted to establish sexual relations with her. In this condition man goes out of the house to satisfy his natural instincts. In this way immorality increases in family and the society.

(4) Another demerit of this custom is that when man comes to know that the child is not his, which his wife is producing, then in that condition he started to ignore the child and then the wife has to take the responsibility of that child.

Question 4.
Explain in detail the functions of family.
Answer:
Different sociologists have classified the functions of the family according to their own ways whose description is given below:

1. Biological Functions of Family:

1. Satisfaction of sexual desire. This necessary function of family exists from that time when human society came into being because the satisfaction of sexual desire is the primary function of family. This objective connects the male and female with each other for a long time and it helps also in the formation of the personality. If we will suppress this wish then many types of problems can occur which will result in the breakdown of social relations.

2. Reproduction. For the maintenance and existence of society it is necessary that human race should be perpetuated. According to Hindu religious books, man cannot get salvation until that time when he doesn’t have son. Society never gives sanction to the children which are born out of family. That’s why the reproduction of children is the aim of the family.

3. Provision of shelter. Family provides security to its members. House is provided to the members of the family so that they should live with their family when they will come back to their house from their work. These days man gets rooms to live in clubs, hotels but his house is just like a heaven for him. It is so because of the comfort which he gets in family, he can never get anywhere else.

4. Upbringing of children. The function of the upbringing of children also belongs to family. Actual development of a child is possible only under the control of the parents. It is right that in modern age creaches are taking care of children because females are also employed. But still we can see that the children who grow up under the supervision of their parents have more qualities than the others. In this way we can take care of our children only with the help of family and all-round development of the child is possible.

5. Provision of food and clothing. Humans need food to live and this need is fulfilled by family. Family saves its members from different natural forces. Human child is more dependent upon the family for a very long time. If the new born baby will not wear the clqthes according to the season then he can fall sick. In winter he needs woollen clothes and in summer he needs cotton clothes and the family provides him all these things.

2. Economic Functions of Family:

1. Protection of Property. In family, the property of one generation is given to another generation. In ancient times, in patriarchal families, property was divided only among boys. But in modern times girl can also take the share of her father’s property. If any person dies unmarried then after his death his relatives fight with each other for the property. So property is divided among the members of family according to the wish of the head of family.

2. Provision of Money. We need money to fulfil our needs and the needs of the family. That’s why in ancient societies head of family was providing the money for family. But today husband and wife both are earning to fulfil the needs of the members of family.

Social Functions of Family:

1. Socialization. Child learns ways of living in society only in family and becomes a good citizen. With the help of family child establishes social contacts. Child takes birth in family and first of all he comes in contact with his parents because they fulfil his basic needs. Person gets ascribed status from the family. According to Merrill, “Family is an enduring association of parents and offspring whose primary functions are the socialization of the children and the satisfaction of the members.”

Child’s personality develops only in family. According to Aristotle, “Man is a social animal.” This social quality he gets while living in society. According to Anderson, to control the animal habits of man, to form good habits, to understand responsibilities and to develop self belief are the main functions of family. Qualities like cooperation, love, sacrifice, discipline develop in a person only in the family. If child gets proper education in the family then good citizens will come in society. Person comes to know about every type of behaviour of society only in family.”

2. Protection and transmission of culture. Family protects our culture and this culture is our social heritage and continuity exists in it. Every family understands the responsibilities of giving good habits to next generation, traditions, customs, rituals to the person. Child learns every thing with unconscious mind because he automatically does that thing which he observes in the family. Every family has its own customs on which it is based. Family tells the child to learn something consciously so that the child should move according to the traditions of the family. In this way on the basis of this continuity family protects and transmits the culture to next generation.

3. Social control. Family is an important agency of social control because it is the first agency in which the child is controlled so that the bad habits should not be developed. For example, parents keep control over him to not to tell a lie, not to speak wrong with elders so that the child should follow the rules of the family. Every person wants to do that type of work which helps in increasing the prestige of his family in the society. Family controls every type of behaviour and actions of its members. In this way child becomes disciplined. If child does not behave in a proper way with the members of family then he will definitely misbehave with the other members of the society. For example, child learns the habit of theft only by looking at its elders. If they will not do this then child will also come under control. In this way family controls its members.

4. To provide status. In a family child comes to know about his status and role. In ancient societies child was respected according to family in which he was born. For example, a child born in a rich family, King’s house, Landlord’s house was getting social status automatically. Child born in poor family had low status. Yet in today’s age man gets status according to his ability but still child has to work according to the family in which he is born.

5. Provide occupation. In ancient societies child had to adopt the occupation of family in which he was born. In caste system, child born in Brahmin’s family can adopt the occuption of the brahmins. According to ancient history, division of occupation was based on caste and caste was related with the birth of child. Yet today person can adopt the occupation according to his ability but still in business, person adopts his hereditary occupation.

6. Help in marriage. This function was also done by family in ancient societies. Yet in today’s age man establishes marital relations according to his wish. But still it is necessary that the family members should be present at the time of marriage. Even today it is the duty of the family to get their children married.

Education Functions:

Family is the basic agency for the education of a child because he gets first education only in family. To give good habits and qualities is also related with family. In ancient societies education related to occupation, education related to religion, education related to making a good citizen was given only in family. Yet in present society child’s educational functions have been taken away by other institutions but still many functions related to education are done by family.

Political Functions:

In political area family has an important place. According to Confucius, man firstly is the member of the family then is of state. In primitive societies family’s importance was more than political aspect. Society was divided in different tribes. Eldest members of these tribes were made the head of the tribe. Head of the family was the eldest member of the family and others were working under him. In Indian joint family system head of family is of great importance. This head can be grandfather or great grandfather of the family. Members of family were given different status and roles which everyone had to obey. That’s why stability of family was there. The main reason behind the disorganization of the family in modern society is the lack of political functions of the family. Family helps the person to become a political man so that the man should be able to become a good citizen of the society. Political organization is a powerful organization which regulates the social relations of the person. So organization of the family is responsible for the organization of the society.

Religious Functions:

Child gets knowledge about religious rituals in family only. According to Hindu religious books, religious rituals are incomplete without wife. Family is the centre of religious actions. In Indian society, marriage is known as religious sacrament and it completed by religious actions. Religious rituals are done by the family from the birth till death. Qualities of the person are developed by the family. Religion controls the behaviour of human. It develops many of the good qualities in person like sacrifice, love, cooperation etc. According to Timasheff Cohen, “The structure and status of the family are often reflected in religion, the gods forming families along human lines. In those societies, atleast religious rules serve as instrument of integration, offering common societal values which help to direct the society as. a whole.” Family life depends upon religion. In this way religion tells its ‘members about religious ideals, rules with which social unity is maintained. In modern societies people’s point of view has become scientific but still family maintains its social customs.